Composite Image

© Anthony Ayiomamitis
View from Athens Greece View from Syene Egypt

Scorpius

Scorpius

Latitude: 38º N Latitude: 24º N

 Scorpius
Scorpius is
low in the sky

Scorpius is
high in the sky

Both see Scorpius high in the sky

Cyrene
Alexandria

Syene
Tropic of Cancer
 7 14/60º

Sunlight
Alexandria

Syene

Earth
North Pole

Equator

South Pole
North Pole

Equator

South Pole
North Pole

Meridian

Equator

South Pole
North Pole

Meridian

Equator

South Pole
 North Celestial Pole
Celestial
Sphere

Celestial
Equator

South Celestial Pole

 NCP

Declination

CEq

Celestial
Meridian

SCP
 Local Sky Zenith

S N
Horizon
E
 Zenith

n
Meridia
N

W E

S Horizon

Nadir
 NCP
Visible Half
of the Sky
Z N

W E

S CEq

Below the
Horizon

SCP
 Measuring Zenith
Latitude
NCP
CEq

W Latitude

S N
Horizon
E
 Z NCP
Z

W
NCP
S
N
E

Z NCP

Equator
North Pole
W

S N

40º N Latitude
 Zenith
Above Horizon for > 12h
NCP
Above Horizon
for 12h

Above Horizon Never Sets

W
for < 12h

S N

Never Rises E

CEq
 NCP

Ecliptic

CEq

~23.5º
Obliquity of
the Ecliptic
SCP
 March: Sun in Pisces
Pisces
Taurus Aries Aquarius

Capricorn
Gemini

Sagittarius

Cancer

Scorpius

Leo Libra
Virgo
 June: Sun in Gemini
Pisces
Taurus Aries Aquarius

Capricorn
Gemini

Sagittarius

Cancer

Scorpius

Leo Libra
Virgo
 September: Sun in Virgo
Pisces Aquarius
Taurus Aries

Capricorn
Gemini

Sagittarius

Cancer

Scorpius

Leo Libra
Virgo
 December: Sun in Sagittarius
Pisces Aquarius
Taurus Aries

Capricorn
Gemini

Sagittarius
Cancer

Scorpius

Leo Libra
Virgo
 NCP

Summer
Solstice

pt ic
c li CEq
E

Winter
Solstice

SCP
 NCP

Autumnal Summer
Equinox Solstice

pt ic
c li CEq
E

Winter Vernal
Solstice Equinox

SCP
 Z
Summer Solstice
NCP
Equinoxes

CEq
W
Winter Solstice
S N

E
 Z
Summer Solstice
NCP
Equinoxes

W
Winter Solstice
S N

CEq
 September
June

December

March
Equinoxes: March & September

Northern Spring/Fall

Southern Fall/Spring
December Solstice

Northern Winter

Southern Summer
June Solstice

Northern Summer

Southern Winter
1 KW/m2 1 KW/m2

1 m2 2 m2
 December Solstice March Equinox

Winter Spring

Summer Autumn

June Solstice September Equinox

Summer Autumn

Winter Spring
 Cepheus

Draco

Polaris
Ursa Minor
2000 AD
Thuban

2700 BC
 Precession of the Equinoxes

North Ecliptic Pole North Celestial Pole

North Celestial Pole North Ecliptic Pole
Rotate Eastward
Precess Westward

2000 AD 15000 AD
Moon at Perigee Moon at Apogee
 Last Quarter
Waning Crescent Waning Gibbous

New Moon Full Moon

Waxing Crescent Waxing Gibbous

First Quarter
Moonrise & Moonset at 1st Quarter

Sunrise

Noon Midnight
Moonrise Moonset
Sunset
Moonrise & Moonset at Full Moon

Moonset
Sunrise

Noon Midnight

Sunset
Moonrise
 Sunrise

Noon Midnight
Moonset Moonrise
Sunset

Moonrise & Moonset at Last Quarter

Sidereal vs. Synodic Months
T=29.5d
(Synodic)

T=27.3d
(Sidereal)

T=0d
New
Moon
 Umbra

Penumbra

Sun Earth
 Uneclipsed Moon

Sunlight Penumbral Eclipse

Total Lunar Eclipse

Partial Lunar Eclipse

 Total Lunar Eclipse Partial Lunar Eclipse
(Note the ruddy scattered sunlight)
 Umbra
Sunlight

Moon

Penumbra
Earth
 NCP
Cross-Quarter
Days
Autumnal 3rd Summer
Equinox Solstice

4th
pt ic CEq
li 2nd
Ec

Winter Vernal
Solstice 1st Equinox

SCP
Solar & Sidereal
T=24h
Days (Solar day)

T=23h 56m 04s

n (Sidereal Day)
o
No

T=0h
Noon

Not to Scale
 Earth

Inferior Superior
Conjunction Conjunction
 Maximum
Eastern Elongation

Earth

Maximum Western
Elongation
Opposition Conjunction
Earth
 Eastern
Quadrature

Opposition Earth Conjunction

Western
Quadrature
 Mars Retrograde Motion in 1994/95

1995 Mar 24
1994 Sept 24

1995 Jan 2

1995 July 4
 Mars
11/1998-10/1999
Saturn

Jupiter

Saturn & Jupiter

4/1999 - 6/2000
Venus
Mercury 6-11/1999
10-12/1999
 m

90°

α=87°

E S
 Planet

Epicycle
Earth

Deferent
Earth-Moon System Apogee

Earth

Perigee
 Planet

Epicycle

Earth

Deferent
 C
Earth
Equant

Earth
Equant

Earth
The Ptolemaic Jupiter
Geocentric System
c. 150 AD

Moon

Mercury
Venus

Mars

Saturn W.D. Stahlman, in

de Santillana (1955)
The Copernican
Heliocentric System
Jupiter
1543 AD Moon

Mars

Mercury
Saturn
Venus

W.D. Stahlman, in
de Santillana (1955)
Geocentric Heliocentric

Venus
Mercury

Venus

Mercury
Earth

Earth
 Mars
Earth
 dVenus
46º

1 AU

d Venus  1 AU  sin(46)
 0.719 AU
January 1
Background
stars

July 1

Sun Nearby
Star

July 1 January 1
Kepler’s First Law

a ae
X
f1 C f2

a = semimajor axis
e = eccentricity
How to draw an Ellipse:
 Circle: e=0

e=0.5

e=0.9
0.9a
a
X
f1 f1 C f2 f2
0.5a
Kepler’s Second Law
Kepler’s Third Law

P a 2 3

Planet a (AU) P (yr) a3 P2

Mercury 0.387 0.241 0.0580 0.0580
Venus 0.723 0.615 0.3785 0.3785
Earth 1.000 1.000 1.0000 1.0000
Mars 1.524 1.881 3.5373 3.5376
Jupiter 5.203 11.863 140.88 140.72
Saturn 9.537 29.447 867.45 867.16
9 June 1613 11 June 1613
Copernican System Ptolemaic System

6 5 4 3 2 1 6 5 4 3 2 1

4 3
4 3

5 2
5 2

6 1
6 1
 acceleration = Force / mass
a=F/m

BIG mass
F
small acceleration

Same Force Different acceleration

small mass
F
BIG acceleration
 Changing Speed
(apple’s speed is faster the farther it falls)

Constant Direction
(apples always falls toward the Earth)
Equal and Opposite
Force from the Table

Net Force is Zero,

No Net Motion
Force = (apple’s mass)  (acceleration due to gravity)
 Constant speed

V
F

Changing direction
M1
M2
d

GM 1M 2
F 2
d
 2M
M11
M2
d

G (2 M 1 ) M 2 GM 1M 2
F 2
2 2
d d
 2M
M11
2M2
d

G (2 M 1 )(2 M 2 ) GM 1 M 2
F 2
4 2
d d
 M1
M2

d/2

GM 1M 2 GM 1M 2
F 2
4 2
(d / 2) d
M1
M2
2d

GM 1M 2 1 GM 1M 2
F 2
 2
(2d ) 4 d
FGravity
Moon

Earth
Closed Curves:

Circle (e=0)
Open Curves:

Ellipses (0<e<1) Parabola (e=1)

Hyperbolae (e>1)
 Circle

Ellipse

a
bol
o la
Pa
ra b per
Hy
vC  GM
r
v = vC

v < vC

vC<v<vE
vE  2GM
r M
r

Parabola
v=vE
Hyperbola
v>vE
 An object can change its orbit by
changing its speed.

Use rocket engines or gravity

assist fly-bys to change speed.
v=vC

vE>v>vC v<vC

=vE
v

vE
v>
 Burn 1:
v1>vC,1
r1
Burn 2: v1<vC,2 v0=vC,1
v2=vC,2

r2
 a2 a1

a
M2 M1

C-o-M

a = a1 + a2

a2 / a1 = M1 / M2
Drawn to Scale
Drawn to Scale
 Arctic Circle
66.5º N: 666 km/h

Columbus, Ohio
40º N: 1280 km/h

Equator
1670 km/h
 Towards Sirius

6 hours later
 a λ

a = amplitude = height of crest above trough

λ (lambda) = wavelength = distance from crest-to-crest

f = frequency = number of crests passing per second

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Medical Thermal
WOSU
X rays UVA Imager WiFi

Wikimedia Commons
 d=1
B=1 d=2
B=1/4
L d=3
B = B=1/9
4 d 2
 d
“B”

“B/22 = B/4”

2d

d/3 “B/(1/3)2 = 9 B”
Stationary
Source

Same Pitch Same Pitch

Moving
Source

High Pitch Low Pitch

(short waves) (long waves)
Blue Red
Star at Rest

Star moving
“Redshift” away from us

Star moving
“Blueshift” away toward us
 Cool Gas Hot Gas
Slow Average Speeds Faster Average Speeds
 Prisms disperse light into its
component colors

White
Light Spectrum
Prism
Continuous Spectrum Emission-line Spectrum

Continuum
Source Cloud of
Hydrogen Gas
Absorption-line
Spectrum
Hydrogen

Helium

Oxygen

Neon

Iron
Lamp emits light at all energies

Lamp
Light
Absorbed
by
Hydrogen
Atoms
Continuum in the
Source Cloud of Cloud
Hydrogen Gas
 Visible

UV Infrared
Continuum Energy Level
Diagram of 1H
n=
n=5
n=4
n=3 (2nd excited state)

n=2 (1st excited state)

n=1 (Ground State)

62 52 42 n=32
n=6
n=5
n=4
n=3 (2nd excited state)

n=2 (1st excited state)

Larger Jump = More Energy = Bluer Wavelength

n=1 (Ground State)

26 25 24 n=23
n=6
n=5
n=4
n=3 (2nd excited state)

n=2 (1st excited state)

Photons of all other energies (wavelengths) are

ignored and pass on by unabsorbed.

n=1 (Ground State)

 Visible

UV Infrared
 The Sun’s Spectrum

NOIRLab
Spectrum of a Fluorescent Light
 Retina
Collecting Area

Lens
 Simple Refracting Telescope

Focus

Secondary Lens
(Eyepiece)
Objective Lens
 Primary
Prime
Mirror
Focus

Secondary Cassegrain
Mirror Focus
4.5 Billion Years Ago Today
238
U 235
U 238
U 235
U
50% left 1.2% left

206
Pb 207
Pb 206
Pb 207
Pb
1 half-life 6.3 half-lives
 Seismic Station

Crust
P-waves

Lower Upper
Mantle Mantle

Core

Surface
P&S S waves Waves
waves

Seismic Station
Earthquake!
 Two Faces of the Moon

Maria Impact Basin

Cratered
Highlands
Near Side Far Side
Apollo and Luna Landing Sites

A15
A17

L24
L20
A11 L16
A12 A14
A16
Terrestrials Ice Giants
Gas Giants

Dwarf Planets
Neptune Mars

Earth
Uranus
Venus

Saturn Mercury

Jupiter
 Pluto

Ecliptic
Dwarf Planets
Dwarf Planets
Eris

Neptune

Pluto
Uranus

Saturn

Ceres
Main Belt and
Trojan Asteroids

Jupiter
Trans-Neptunian
Objects
Terrestrial Planets

Solid inner core

Liquid outer
core

Venus Earth

Moon
Mercury Mars
 Gas Giants

Saturn
95.2 ME
Earth to scale
9.44 RE
687 kg m−3

Jupiter
318 ME
11.2 RE
1326 kg m−3
 Cloud Tops

Molecular
Hydrogen

Metallic
Hydrogen

Rock
& Ice
Cores
Jupiter Saturn
 Ice Giants
Uranus Neptune

14.5 ME 17.1 ME
4.01 RE 3.88 RE
1420 kg m−3 Earth to scale 1638 kg m−3
 Molecular
Hydrogen

Rocky
Core

Slushy
“Ice”Mantles
Uranus Neptune
 Earth

Uranus Neptune

Saturn
Jupiter
 Star’s spectrum red-shifted
S
observed

rest

Star’s spectrum blue-shifted p

observed

rest
S