Fingerprint_Classification

A fingerprint is an impression formed by the friction

ridges present on a human finger.
Principles
Every fingerprint is unique. No two fingers have yet
been found to have the same ridge patterns.
A Fingerprint will remain unchanged during an
individual’s lifetime.
Fingerprints have general ridge patterns that can be
systematically classified
The three classes of fingerprints are: loops, whorls,
and arches
 The innumerable lines present in the palmar surface that
constitutes a fingerprint are commonly referred to as the
ridge characteristics or minutae.
 The fingerprint patterns present on the human fingers are
unique, detailed and cannot be altered and that’s why they
are used as long term markers of human identity.
Fingerprints retrieved from the scene of crime are used as
an important tool in forensic science. Fingerprint analysis
has been used to identify suspects and solve crimes for
more than 100 years, and it remains an extremely valuable
tool for law enforcement.
One of the most important uses for fingerprints is to
help investigators link one crime scene to another
involving the same person. Fingerprint identification
also helps investigators to track a criminal’s record,
their previous arrests and convictions, to aid in
sentencing, probation, parole and pardoning decisions.
History
 The Chinese used fingerprints to sign legal documents. However, it is not sure
that this practice was carried out as a part of ceremonial custom or was used as
a means of personal identification. Also, years before Bertillon began work on
the system, Sir William Herschel, an English Civil Servant positioned in India
acquired finger patterns of the natives to sign their contracts.
Herschel’s motives of using fingerprints remained
unclear and nothing was published about his activities
until Henry Fauld, a Scottish physician published his
views on the importance of using fingerprints in the
field of personal identification. In a publication of
1880, Fauld suggested that the human ridge patterns
can be employed in the field of criminal investigation.
He was not only convinced that they offer an infallible
means of identification but also offered to set up a
bureau of fingerprints at the Scotland Yard so as to test
the practicability of fingerprints. However, by this time
the Bertillon system had been readily accepted and
hence Fauld’s offer was rejected.
About two decades later another Englishman, Sir
Francis Galton did an extensive research on the
science of fingerprints that provided the much needed
stimulus and the Police agencies began recognising the
value of fingerprints.
The book named Finger Prints was published by
Galton in the year 1892 in which he wrote about the
fundamental principles of fingerprints while
categorising them into three classes i.e. Arches, Whorls
and Loops. The British Government adopted
fingerprints as an appendage to the Bertillon system on
the insistence of Galton.
Another fingerprint classification system was proposed
by Sir Edward Richard Henry in the year 1897 which
was adopted by the Scotland Yard, four years later.
Today, the United States and many English-speaking
countries rely on Henry’s system of classifying
fingerprints for the filing purposes
Henry proposed an original fingerprint classification system,
which converted ridge patterns into letters and numbers.
Scotland Yard adopted this system in 1901, capable of
accommodating files up to 100,000 sets of prints.
As collections grew, the need for expansion arose, leading to
revisions and extensions of the system.
The FBI in the United States expanded the Ten-Digit
Fingerprint classification system to accommodate growing
collections.
These revisions collectively form the FBI system, widely
used by crime investigating agencies in the US.
 Classification systems, like the Henry System, enable quick
identification and location of fingerprints, akin to library filing
systems.
 The Henry System assigns primary classifications based on finger
pattern distribution, allowing for efficient searches.
 Further extensions are achieved by assessing specific features of each
digit, enabling individual comparison for identity determination.
 While effective for searching entire sets of fingerprints, the Henry
System was less useful for individual 'cold' crime scene impressions.
 The Battley System was developed to address this, taking extra
fingerprints at the time of arrest and classifying each digit for
individual filing.
 Crime scene impressions were examined, and the most probable digits
were classified and searched using the Battley System.
summary
 The provided document discusses the evolution of systems of friction
ridge classification used in criminal identification. Here is a summary
of the key points:
 Historical Background: Before scientific methods, visible methods like
tattoos were used for criminal identification. Photography and rogues'
galleries were early attempts at identification but proved ineffective
due to changes in appearance
.
 Alphonse Bertillon: Introduced standard photography and developed
anthropometry, a system based on body measurements, which was the
first scientific method used to identify criminals
.
 Johannes Evangelist Purkinje: Described nine fingerprint patterns in
1823, laying the foundation for fingerprint classification
 Dr. Henry Faulds: Recognized the potential of fingerprints for
individualization, collected thousands of fingerprint cards, and proved the
uniqueness and permanence of fingerprints. He developed a syllabic system of
classification
 Sir Edward Richard Henry: Introduced a fingerprint classification system based
on primary and secondary classifications, which was widely adopted by police
institutions
.
 Palmprint Classification: Various palmprint classification systems were
developed, such as the Liverpool system and the Brogger Moller system, each
focusing on different divisions of the palm for identification
.
 These developments marked significant progress in criminal identification
methods, transitioning from anthropometry to fingerprint and palmprint
classification systems for more accurate and reliable personal individualization
in criminal justice.
Thus, in the Ten-Digit classification system, the Ten-
Digit fingerprint slip is analysed under the following
seven classification system:
1. Primary classification
2. Major division classification
3. Secondary classification
4. Sub-secondary classification
5. Second sub-secondary classification
6. Final classification
7. Key classification
Facial Approximation(Super imposition)
In forensic investigations where traditional identification
methods fail and there are no suspects, police may resort
to less definitive methods.
Most identification techniques require a known
individual for comparison (DNA, fingerprints, dental
records), making it impossible without suspects.
Facial reconstruction is a common method used in such
cases to focus on a population for potential identification.
Facial reconstruction, also known as facial
approximation, involves various procedures to recreate
an individual's facial appearance.
Traditionally, facial reconstruction involved analyzing
skeletal details to determine facial morphology.
In cases where facial soft tissues are present in various
conditions (decomposed, damaged, distorted, or
preserved), presenting images may not be suitable.
Facial reconstruction is then used to visualize the
facial appearance by analyzing soft tissues instead of
skeletal details.
Practitioners may analyze both soft and hard tissues
using clinical imaging or dissection in certain cases.
Confusion in Forensic Facial Reconstruction:
Different approaches have led to confusion regarding
reliability and presentation.
Some practitioners aim to reproduce a facial "type"
based on average tissue data and facial templates related
to sex, age, and ethnic group.
 Facial Superimposition Technique:
Matches a recovered skull with a photograph for identification.
Recent photographs are preferred, including lateral views.
Two negatives are prepared (person and skull) and superimposed
with appropriate magnification.
Inter-pupillary distance is crucial and remains constant regardless
of age.
Points like canthus, nasion, nasal spine, jaw angles, and teeth are
compared for alignment.
Analysis of similarities and dissimilarities helps in reaching a
conclusion.
This technique is more useful in ruling out mismatches than
confirming a definite match.
In situations where access to the original specimen is
restricted due to legal issues, inaccessibility, or damage,
and only photographs or x-rays of the skull are available,
two-dimensional facial reconstruction can be conducted.
Here are key points regarding this process:

Skull Positioning: Ideally, the skull should be in the Frankfurt

Horizontal Plane (FHP) for accurate reconstruction.
Photography Requirements: For 35mm photography, a lens
with a focal length of 100–200mm and a camera position of
at least 12 ft/3 m from the skull should be used to prevent
distortion.
Measurement Considerations: When there is access to
the original specimen, scaling measurements should be
taken by the facial anthropologist or a visual scale
included in the images.
Tissue Depth Markers: If possible, tissue depth markers
should be attached to the skull before image production
to provide essential tissue indications.
Alternative Marker Placement: In cases where direct
attachment of tissue depth markers is not feasible, some
markers can be indicated on overlays superimposed onto
the images of the skull.
These guidelines ensure that two-dimensional facial
reconstruction is conducted accurately and effectively
even when direct access to the original specimen is
limited.
The process of creating three-dimensional models
from two-dimensional data, such as radiographs and
photographs, involves aligning multiple views using
cranial points as registration markers. This technique is
crucial in forensic facial reconstruction, aiding in the
recreation of an individual's face from skeletal remains
for identification purposes
Cranio facial superimposition
Photographic Superimposition:
Involves creating a photographic image of the skull for
superimposition on an ante-mortem photo.
Assumes photographs accurately depict facial details,
presenting challenges in positioning and distance
alignment.
 Historical Example –
Buck Ruxton Case (1935):Dr. Ruxton's case involved dismembering
victims to prevent identification.
Forensic expert John Glaister used photo superimposition to identify
victims, leading to Dr. Ruxton's conviction.

 Modern Techniques:Tadao
Furue developed a technique using a large format camera and mirrors
for accurate skull positioning.
N.S. Klonaris and Furue applied a variation to match dental x-rays
with post-mortem fragments, useful in forensic odontology.
These examples highlight the evolution and application of craniofacial
superimposition techniques in forensic investigations for accurate
identification and criminal justice purposes.
Forensic odontology:

 Deals with handling and examining dental evidence for justice

 Emphasizes proper evaluation and presentation of findings
 Integral part of forensic medicine:
 Widely used for identifying living and deceased persons
 Developing significantly in recent times
 Increased interest:
 Due to reliance from forensic, legal, law enforcement, and insurance
professionals
 Dental evidence crucial for their operations
 Applications in disaster situations:
 Identifying deceased in mass disasters (e.g., earthquakes, tsunamis, air
crashes)
 Identifying decomposed and disfigured bodies (e.g., drowned persons,
fire victims, motor vehicle accident victims)
 Importance of dentist's role:
Supplying antemortem dental records aids in human identification in
forensic dentistry
Vital in identifying individuals with visually unidentifiable remains
(e.g., burnt, decomposed, mutilated)
 Components of patient records:
History, physical examination, diagnosis, treatment, and care details
Written notes, radiographs, study models, referral letters, consultants'
reports, clinical photographs, special investigation results, drug and
laboratory prescriptions
Patient identification information and comprehensive medical history
 Usefulness of palatal rugae:
Helpful in identifying young individuals with no dental restorations in
many cases
Role of a Forensic Odontologist
 - Identification of unknown human remains through dental records
 - Providing assistance to forensic experts and police personnel in cases of
mass disasters
 - Age estimations of both living and deceased persons (including neo-
natal remains)
 - Analysis of bite marks found on victims or accused in cases of physical
or sexual assault
 - Identification of bite marks on substances such as wood, leather, and
foodstuffs
 - Assistance in identifying the weapon of offense using principles of bite
mark analysis
 - Acting as an expert witness in cases involving bite or weapon marks
 - Providing assistance to archaeologists in building up a dietary history of
a tribe or a race
 Teeth and dental restorations:
 Most durable human tissues, resistant to destruction by biological, chemical,
and physical elements
 Survive insults, decomposition, extreme temperatures, and tremendous force
 Dental identification is highly accurate when visual and fingerprint methods
fail
 Dental anatomy and identification:
 Adult dentition comprises 32 teeth, each with 5 surfaces, totaling 160
surfaces
 Combination of missing, filled, carious lesions, crowns, and prostheses
forms basis for identification
 Specific morphological patterns of restorations, prostheses, root canals, and
surrounding tissues enhance characterization
 Concept that no two dentitions are alike is fundamental to dental
identification
Process of dental identification:
Establishing unique characteristics of teeth and dental
work
Comparison with dental charts and records
Significant in cases of skeletonization, decomposition,
burning, or dismemberment
Dental evidence often preserved postmortem due to
hardness
Comparison process:
Based on antemortem and postmortem data comparison
Outcomes:
 Positive identification: Comparable items sufficiently distinct; no
major differences
 Possible identification: Similarities exist, but missing information
prevents positive ID
 Insufficient identification evidence: Not enough evidence for
definitive ID, inconclusive
 Exclusion: Inconsistencies between antemortem and postmortem
data, total exclusion
Blood Analysis
Identification tests of natural evidences are designed to
determine the nature of a questioned material such as
blood, semen, urine or saliva. To govern the species of
origin of blood such as human, animal, etc.
identification tests are mostly used. In several cases,
tests can be done to illustrate that human blood has
been devised from a specific source such as menstrual
blood. Blood, Urine, Saliva and Semen are examples
of the biological evidence.
Blood is a very complicated liquid tissue. It is used as
the transporting medium for all the substances in the
organism. It is to some extent alkaline fluid that flows
in our bodies.
Blood is of significant evidence in crimes generally
seen like murder, rape, assault, robbery, burglary, hit-
and-run accidents, and game law abuses.
Blood basically consists of H2O, Cells, Enzymes,
Proteins and Other Inorganic Substances.
Forensic biology is a sub-discipline of forensic
science.
Forensic biology uses scientifically accepted protocols
to analyse biological evidence. Laboratory analysis
utilizes scientific techniques for the examination of
evidence, the reconstruction of a crime scene, the
identification of biological fluids, and the comparison
of individual characteristics of biological evidence.
Forensic investigation involving biological evidence
usually begins at the crime scene. The crime scene
investigation process includes maintaining scene
security, preparing documentation, and collecting and
preserving physical evidence. A crime scene
investigation requires teamwork and effort. Each team
member should be assigned specific tasks.
Blood Spatter Analysis
 Bloodstain pattern analysis is a forensic discipline dealing
with the physics of blood and assessing bloodstains at crime
scenes based on visual pattern recognition.
 It helps in reconstructing events, differentiating between
homicide/suicide/accident, and identifying areas for DNA
sampling.
 The method analyzes bloodstains based on shape, size, and
distribution to understand how blood traveled through a
space.
 Bloodstain pattern analysis is based on principles of
physics, biology, chemistry, and medicine, requiring
specialized training.
 The history of bloodstain pattern analysis dates back to the 19th
century, with Eduard Piotrowski's systematic study and the Samuel
Sheppard case in the USA.
 Bloodstains are classified into passive/gravity, spatter, and altered
categories, each providing valuable insights into crime scenes.
 Analysis at crime scenes involves securing traces in order of
sensitivity, with spatial understanding and expert assessments being
crucial.
 Chemical substances like luminol are used to enhance or detect
bloodstains, but positive results do not always confirm the presence
of blood.
 Thorough documentation, spatial knowledge, and early involvement
of bloodstain specialists are essential for accurate analysis and crime
scene investigation.
Kinds of
Evidence
A preliminary survey should be carried out to evaluate
potential evidence. In particular, the recognition of
evidence plays a critical role in solving or prosecuting
crimes. The priority of the potential evidence at crime
scenes should be assessed based on each item’s
relevance to the solution of the case. Higher priority
should be assigned to evidence with probative value to
the case.
 Evidence related to corpus delicti is prioritized in forensic
investigations.
Corpus delicti, meaning "body of crime" in Latin, is crucial in
proving the occurrence of a crime in Western law.
It encompasses physical evidence demonstrating that a crime
occurred.
 For instance, in missing person cases, the discovery of corpus
delicti like a dead body or victim's blood can establish a
homicide case and lead to charges.
 Higher priority should also be given to evidence establishing
connections, such as victim-to-perpetrator linkage.
Items found in a perpetrator's possession may be linked to a
victim
 Transfer evidence, based on transfer theory or the Locard
exchange principle, involves the cross-transfer of evidence
through physical contact.
Trace evidence like hairs and fibers may transfer from a perpetrator
to a victim or vice versa.
 Ensuring thorough searches of perpetrators and their belongings
is crucial to finding trace evidence.
 Similarly, victims and their belongings should be examined for
trace evidence.
 Victim-to-scene and perpetrator-to-scene linkages can be
established through evidence like blood found at crime scenes.
 Reciprocal transfers of trace evidence between crime scenes can
link suspects or victims to those scenes.
Site of Biological Evidences
 - **BLOOD**
 - **Considered as evidence**
 - **Nature**: Blood spot can be found red in colour.
 - **On Movable Surface**: Weapon, Glass, Paper, Cloth,
Soil, Vehicle, Wood, etc.
 - **On immovable Surface**: Dead Body, Wall, Earth
Surface, Windows, etc.
 - Any articles like water tap, hanky, towel, bed sheet,
pillow, blanket, curtain, mat also examined at the time of
collection at the crime scene, because a criminal may come
in contact with these articles during the commission of a
crime.
 - **SEMEN**
 - **Considered as evidence**
 - **Nature**: White or yellowish starchy fluid of
the body.
 - Semen is mainly found in cases of sexual assault,
rape, etc., on inner garments or clothes of the victim as
well as the accused, bed sheet, blankets, etc. Semen is
also considered as evidence and checked in all
suspected places on cloth.
 - **SALIVA**
 - **Considered as evidence**
 - **Nature**: White, frothy, and concentrated fluid
containing a mixture of antigens and enzymes.
 - Saliva is found on clothes, cigarette butts, bottles, cups,
hankies, and also in cases of biting during assault,
kidnapping, hanging, quarrel, fighting, tobacco spitting or
spite, and sometimes saliva is secreted continuously from
the mouth due to disease.
 - Saliva also plays an important role in solving many
cases, so always check suspected areas or corners where the
possibility is maximum.
 - **VOMIT**
 - **Considered as evidence**
 - **Nature**: Yellow, green, black coloured liquid
containing undigested or partially digested food matter.
 - It is found on earth or clothes in cases of poisoning and in
some critical diseases, etc.
 - **HAIR**
 - **Considered as evidence**
 - **Nature**: Thin and dark black in colour, seems like
thread.
 - Hair is also considered as evidence in cases of assault and
also transferred by means of contact.
 - **FIBER**
 - **Considered as evidence**
 - **Nature**: Present in different colours and
structures. Soft and delicate by nature.
 - Many types of fiber are found at the crime scene
like animal fiber, wood fiber, vegetable fiber, etc., and
it is transferred by contact.
 - **URINE**
 - **Considered as evidence**
 - **Nature**: Transparent yellowish liquid excreted by
urethra.
 - Urine is present on clothes during assault and hanging
cases. It also helps in solving the case.
 - **FECAL MATTER**
 - **Considered as evidence**
 - **Nature**: Fecal colour depends on the age of
humans and diet. Mainly yellow in colour.
 - It is rarely found at the crime scene.
Preservation of Samples
Blood
 Coloured photographs of blood stains are taken from every direction to aid
in the reconstruction of the crime scene.
 - Each sample of blood is packed in different paper or packets after drying,
if wet.
 - Articles are sent to the FSL (Forensic Science Laboratory) for
examination.
 - Wet blood stains are dried for better preservation of the blood sample.
 - If blood stains are present on immovable articles, coloured photographs
are taken first to establish the scene. Then, the sample of blood is collected
using a sharp knife and scalpel and preserved in a glass bottle, polythene, or
paper bag.
 - If the possibility of the presence of blood from two or more persons is
suspected, different weapons are used each time, and blood stains are
collected in separate packets or bags for each person.
- If blood is found in liquid form at the crime scene, a
dropper is used to collect it, and the blood is preserved
in a glass/plastic bottle after adding an anticoagulant
(to prevent coagulation) like Fluoride salt, Heparin,
Sodium citrate, etc. It is then stored in cool and dark
places.
- Blood samples are destroyed when directly exposed
to light, heat, and wind, therefore they need to be
protected.
- Collection of blood samples from every suspected
person is done to relate to the crime.
- Doctors can collect or preserve blood upon the
request of investigators for further analysis of the case.
- During post-mortem, doctors can preserve blood for
investigation and further detailed analysis.
- Accused often wash their clothes or articles where
blood may be present or suspected. In such cases,
chemical tests should be performed by the crime scene
investigator.
- Suspected articles of bloodstains should always be
preserved where the possibility of the presence of
blood is maximum.
Often accused wash their cloth or articles where blood
may present or suspected, in this condition chemical
test should be performed by the crime scene
investigator.
Always preserve suspected articles of blood stain
where possibility of presence of blood is maximum.
Semen
 Collection of semen stains requires careful handling as semen
becomes brittle after drying, leading to the breakdown of
spermatozoa if clothes or articles are not handled properly or
folded.
 - Preservation of semen stains is always performed after the stain
is completely dry. Wet stains can lead to bacterial growth and
putrefaction due to the presence of proteins in semen.
 - Any infection in the testis due to the presence of bacteria can
also secrete a liquid similar to seminal stain, which creates doubt
about the presence of semen.
 - Semen stains are always preserved in air bags, not in airtight
bags or plastic bags.
 - If a stain is found on an immovable or small article, the entire article
or cloth is preserved, and a sample is sent to the FSL.
 - If a stain is present on an immovable article, a sharp knife or scalpel
is used to scratch the stain, and it is then packed in a clean glass
bottle.
 - Seminal stains may be present on pubic hair, so they are also
preserved in a bag or clean plastic tube.
 - If a seminal stain is present on any body part, a cotton swab dipped
in saline water is used to collect it. The cotton swab is then dried and
preserved in a bag.
 - Samples should never be touched with bare hands to avoid
contamination and spoiling of the specimen.
 - Fresh seminal stains contain live spermatozoa, so it's important to
handle the cloth safely and send it properly to the FSL.
Track Marks
In the realm of forensic science, where every detail can be a crucial
piece of evidence, tire marks and shoe marks play a pivotal role in
investigations. These seemingly mundane impressions left behind
at crime scenes hold significant relevance, often providing
investigators with vital clues about the circumstances surrounding
a crime. From identifying vehicles involved in hit-and-run
accidents to tracing the movements of suspects at a crime scene,
tire marks and shoe marks serve as silent witnesses.
The study of tire marks and shoe marks falls under the broader
field of forensic footwear and tire impression analysis. This
discipline utilizes principles of physics, engineering, and material
science to analyze and interpret the unique characteristics of these
marks. By examining factors such as tread patterns, wear
characteristics, and dimensions, forensic experts can determine the
make and model of vehicles, as well as the brand and size of shoes,
leaving these impressions.
 Significance
 Identification: Tire marks and shoe marks help identify vehicles and
individuals involved in crimes by analyzing unique characteristics
such as tread patterns and wear marks.
Suppose a hit-and-run accident occurs, leaving behind tire marks at the
scene. Forensic experts can analyze these tire marks to determine the
make and model of the vehicle involved, potentially leading to the
identification of the perpetrator.
 Reconstruction: These marks assist in reconstructing crime scenes
by providing information on the sequence of events, direction of
travel, and speed of vehicles or individuals.
In a burglary case, shoe marks found near a broken window can
indicate the point of entry. By analyzing the direction and pattern of
these marks, investigators can reconstruct how the perpetrator entered
the premises and possibly determine their movements within the crime
scene.
Associative Evidence: Tire marks and shoe marks can serve as
associative evidence, linking suspects to crime scenes or
connecting different locations in a criminal investigation.
Imagine a scenario where tire marks matching those found at a
crime scene are discovered at a suspect's residence. This
associative evidence can link the suspect to the crime, providing a
compelling connection between the scene of the crime and the
individual under investigation.
Corroboration: They corroborate witness testimonies and
provide objective evidence to support or refute claims made
during investigations.
During a robbery investigation, witnesses claim to have seen a
suspect fleeing the scene wearing distinctive sneakers. By
comparing the shoe marks found at the crime scene with the
description provided by witnesses, investigators can corroborate
the testimony and strengthen the case against the suspect.
Movement Analysis: By analyzing these marks, forensic experts
can determine the movements of vehicles or individuals, aiding in
understanding the dynamics of a crime.
In a homicide investigation, tire marks leading away from the crime
scene can indicate the direction in which the perpetrator fled. By
analyzing the tire marks' patterns and characteristics, forensic experts
can estimate the speed and trajectory of the vehicle, providing
valuable insights into the perpetrator's movements immediately after
the crime.
Technology Advancement: As technology and methodologies in
forensic analysis advance, tire marks and shoe marks remain
indispensable tools for uncovering crucial details in investigations.
With advancements in forensic technology, such as 3D scanning and
computerized databases of tire and shoe patterns, the analysis of tire
marks and shoe marks has become more precise and efficient. These
technological advancements enhance the accuracy and reliability of
forensic findings, making tire marks and shoe marks even more
Prints are divided into three types: visible, plastic and latent.Each type presents its
own challenges and requires specific techniques for detection, collection, and
analysis.

Visible Prints:
These prints are readily visible to the naked eye and do
not require any enhancement techniques to be observed.
A visible print is a transfer of material from the shoe or
tire to the surface.
Visible footwear prints, for example, might be left in
mud, snow, or dust at a crime scene, while visible tire
tracks could be imprinted on soft soil or sand.
Detectives and forensic investigators can photograph or
cast visible prints for further analysis and comparison.
Plastic Prints:
A plastic print is a three-dimensional impression left
on a soft surface.
Plastic prints are impressions left in a pliable surface that
retains the shape of the footwear or tire.
Examples of surfaces where plastic prints can be found
include soft clay, wax, or even snow.
Investigators can use casting materials or lifting
techniques to preserve and document plastic prints for
analysis.
Latent Prints:
Latent prints are invisible to the naked eye and require
enhancement techniques, such as fingerprint powder or
chemical treatments, to be visualized.
These prints are typically left on hard and non-absorbent
surfaces like glass, metal, or polished wood.
Latent footwear prints on surfaces like tile floors or latent tire
tracks on roads may be crucial evidence in solving a crime
once developed and analyze
 Preserving Samples
Photographs:
Photographs are an essential initial step in preserving footwear evidence,
especially for visible or plastic prints.
In all the cases, before attempting to collect the track marks, it is
mandatory to record
them first with the help of notes, sketches and then with photography.
Photographs need
to be taken both at a distance from the track marks and close to it
High-quality photographs capture the details of the footwear impression,
including tread pattern, size, and any unique characteristics.
Photographs are particularly useful for documenting prints on surfaces
like soil, snow, or dusty floors where the impression is visible without
any enhancement.
In a photograph taken from distance, the location of the number of
track marks should be fixed with respect to some fixed objects or
landmarks.
 Then to record every detail of the track marks, close-up
photographs should be taken by putting either one or preferably
two scales (one horizontal and other vertical) along with the track
marks.
Close-up photos should indicate size, shape, and any irregularities
(in the form of wear marks).
Before taking photographs, any extraneous matter that may have
fallen into the impression after it was formed should be cleaned
away with the help of tweezers. If it is not possible to carry out
this cleaning without disturbing the details of the impression, it
should be omitted.
Materials trampled into the impression, such as leaves or grass,
should not be removed because they form part of the impression
and no details will be found under them.
 Casting (Three-dimensional):

 Casting is employed when dealing with plastic prints, where the footwear
impression retains a three-dimensional shape in a pliable surface.
 Materials like dental stone or plaster are poured into the impression to create a
cast that accurately replicates the footwear impression in three dimensions.
 Casting is ideal for preserving detailed impressions on surfaces such as mud,
clay, or soft soil, providing investigators with a tangible replica for analysis.
 Foreign matters or loose pieces or leaves (if any) should be vigilantly
removed
without disturbing the surface of the mark. Any accumulated water or liquid if
available should be removed with a pipette or plastic syringe.
 when threedimensional impression is in loose, dry sand or soil, the surface
must be prepared by spraying shellac or lacquer solution which will will
harden the surface of the mark by binding the loose particles of soil, once
dried, make it suitable for casting. If the pattern is in very dry, firm dirt, it
should be sprayed with light oil.
Lifting (Two-dimensional):

Lifting techniques are used for latent prints, where the footwear
impression is two-dimensional and often invisible to the naked eye.
Various lifting materials, such as adhesive lifters or gel lifters, are
applied to the surface to lift and transfer the impression onto a
backing material, such as clear acetate or lifting tape.
Lifting is commonly employed for prints on hard and non-
absorbent surfaces like glass, tile, or metal, where traditional
casting methods may not be suitable.
  Electro-static lifting- electrostatically charges particles
within dust or light soil, which are then attracted and bonded to a
lifting film. This method is best for collecting dry or dusty
residue impressions on almost any surface, even the skin of a
cadaver
Adhesive lifter - a heavy coating of adhesive lifts the imprint
from smooth, non-delicate surfaces such as tile or hardwood
floors, metal counters, etc. It is usually used in conjunction
with fingerprint powders.
Gelatin lifter - a sheet of rubber with a low-adhesive gelatin
layer on one side that can lift prints from almost any surface,
including porous, rough, curved and textured surfaces. It is
less tacky and more flexible than an adhesive lifter, allowing
it to pick up a dusty shoeprint on a cardboard box, for
example, but not tear the surface of the box.
 Forensic Investigation of Track Marks
 The investigation of track marks in forensic science is underpinned
by two major principles: the Law of Individuality and Locard's
Exchange Principle.
 Law of Individuality:
 The Law of Individuality states that every object, including
footwear and tire marks, possesses unique characteristics that
distinguish it from all other objects.
 In the context of track marks, this law asserts that no two shoes or
tires will leave identical impressions due to variations in design,
wear, and manufacturing processes.
 Forensic experts leverage the Law of Individuality to establish the
uniqueness of footwear and tire marks, enabling the identification
and comparison of these impressions to specific shoes or tires.
 Locard's Exchange Principle:

 Locard's Exchange Principle, formulated by Dr. Edmond Locard,

asserts that whenever two objects come into contact, there will be an
exchange of materials between them.
 In the context of track mark investigation, this principle suggests that
when a shoe or tire makes contact with a surface, it leaves behind
traces of material from that surface, and conversely, picks up traces of
material from the surface.
 Forensic investigators utilize Locard's Exchange Principle to analyze
track marks for transferred materials, such as soil, debris, or fibers,
which can provide valuable evidence linking a suspect or vehicle to a
specific location or crime scene.
 By examining the composition of materials exchanged between the
footwear or tire and the surface, forensic experts can establish
associations and draw inferences about the movements and
interactions of individuals or vehicles involved in criminal activities.
Whenever an item of footwear or a tyre touches a substrate, it
results in direct transfer of both class and individual
characteristics. The suspected footwear or tyre can be
compared with them in order to substantiate any linkage to or
elimination from an alleged crime.
Class Characteristics
Those characteristics which are common to a particular group
and which differentiate the members of that particular group
from those of another group are termed as Class Characteristics.
These comprise of type of footwear like sneaker, loafer, fleet,
chappal, etc., physical size and shape, design or model of the
footwear and the brand name tag or logo of manufacturer.
In case of tyre marks tread width or Tyre stance, depth of pattern
when present deep-set in mud, design and logo of manufacturing
company are considered as class characters.
Individual characteristics
The characteristics that specifically belong to one particular type
and are not present in any other are termed as Individual
characteristics.
These include wear and tear marks present on insole as well as
outsole of footwear, various features like scratches, cuts, holes,
etc. retained by the shoe’s outsole, any materials adhered to the
outsole for a long time that includes gum, nails, pins, threads
used while stitching/repairing a torn sole and most importantly
the maker’s art like any patchwork if the footwear is handmade.
In case of tyre marks wear and tear marks, random cuts, holes
made by sharp embedded pebbles or nails, etc. are the important
individual marks
In both the cases, any extraneous material like sand, hair,
fiber, paint chip, etc found embedded over the pattern should
never be overlooked as they may act as important