Unit 3

Dr. Karthick S
Assistant Professor (Grade II)
SEEE
VIT Bhopal University
Diode
Avalanche is a high field phenomenon, Zener is a high doping phenomenon
Characteristics of a diode are temperature dependent

Note:
One should
remember this.
Zener Diode
• Zener diode is a silicon semiconductor with a p-n junction that is
specifically designed to work in the reverse biased condition. When
forward biased, it behaves like a normal signal diode, but when the
reverse voltage is applied to it, the voltage remains constant for a wide
range of currents.
• Due to this feature, it is used as a voltage regulator in DC circuit. The
primary objective of the Zener diode as a voltage regulator is to
maintain a constant voltage. Let us say if Zener voltage of 5 V is used
then, the voltage becomes constant at 5 V, and it does not change.
A Semiconductor Diode blocks current in the reverse direction but will suffer
damage if the reverse voltage applied across becomes too high.

A voltage regulator is a device that regulates the voltage level. It essentially steps
down the input voltage to the desired level and keeps it at that same level during
the supply.
This ensures that even when a load is applied the voltage doesn’t drop.
The voltage regulator is used for two main reasons, and they are
•To vary or regulate the output voltage
•To keep the output voltage constant at the desired value in spite of variations in
the supply voltage.
Voltage regulators are used in computers, power generators, alternators to control
the output of the plant.
• The value of the series resistor is written as RS = (VL − VZ)IL.
• Current through the diode increases when the voltage across the diode
tends to increase which results in the voltage drop across the resistor.
Similarly, the current through the diode decreases when the voltage
across the diode tends to decrease. Here, the voltage drop across the
resistor is very less, and the output voltage results normally.
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) - Theory

• A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal device which

consists of two pn-junctions formed by sandwiching either p-type or
n-type semiconductor material between a pair of opposite type
semiconductors.
• The primary function of BJT is to increase the strength of a weak
signal, i.e., it acts as an amplifier. A BJT can also be used as a solid
state switch in electronic circuits. Types of BJT
There are two types of BJTs −
• NPN Transistor
• PNP Transistor
• NPN Transistor

An npn-transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductor materials which

are separated by a thin layer of p-type semiconductor. The two terminals viz.
Emitter and Collector are taken out from the two n-type semiconductor and
the Base terminal is from the p-type semiconductor.

In BJT symbol, the arrow on the emitter terminal indicates the direction of
conventional current in the emitter with forward bias. For npn-transistor, the
conventional current flows out of the emitter as indicated by the outing arrow.
• PNP Transistor

• A pnp-transistor is composed of two p-type semiconductors which are

separated by a thin layer of n-type material. The two terminals viz.
Emitter and Collector are taken out from the two p-type
semiconductor layers and the Base terminal is from the n-type
semiconductor. For the pnp-transistor, the conventional current flows
into the emitter as indicated by the inward arrow.
Working Principle of BJT:

The emitter-base junction of BJT is forward-biased, whereas the

collector-base junction is reverse biased. The forward bias of the emitter-
base junction causes the emitter current to flow and this emitter current
entirely flows in the collector circuit. Therefore, the collector current
depends upon the emitter current and nearly equal to the emitter current.
Working of NPN Transistor
With the forward-biased emitter-base junction and reverse-biased
collector-base junction, it can be seen that the forward bias causes the
flow of electrons from the n-type emitter into the p-type base. This
constitutes the emitter current (). As these electrons flow through the p-
type base, they tend to combine with the holes.
• Since the base is lightly doped and very thin, hence, only a small number
electrons (less than 5%) combine with the holes to constitute the base current ().
The remaining (more than 95%) electrons cross over the base region and reach to
the collector region to constitute the collector current (). In this manner, the entire
emitter current flows in the collector circuit.

• The emitter current is the sum of base and collector currents .

Working of PNP Transistor

• For the pnp-transistor, the forward bias of emitter-base junction causes the flow of
holes in the p-type emitter region towards the n-type base and constitutes the
emitter current (IE).
• As these holes cross into the n-type base region, they tend to combine with the
electrons. Since the base is lightly doped and very thin, hence only a small
number of holes (less than 5%) combine with the electrons. The remaining (more
than 95%) cross the base and reach into the collector region to constitute the
collector current (IC).
• In this manner, the entire emitter current flows into the collector circuit. It may be
noted that the current conduction inside the pnp-transistor is due to the movement
of holes. However, in the external connecting wires, the current is still due to the
flow of electrons.
• Ic is the incremental part
we are interested in.
• α is the product of emitter
efficiency and Base
Transport Factor.
• dic/die = α which is less than one
(Common Base)
• Cannot give current amplification
• dic/diB = β >>1 (Common Emitter)
• Can give current amplification
The overall characteristics is
linear eventhough the diode
characteristics are
nonlinear.
It is visible when base
current is increased equally
50, 100, 150 etc(the
increment in ic)
* Ico is in microampere
* β = 50, so Ico may be equal to 50
microampere
Saturation region
 • At this juncture VCB is
negative which makes
collector base forward
bias
• That is due to increase
in iB VCE tends to 0

Current can’t extend beyond

this – Saturation region
At Saturation (Gross
values)
VCE = 0.2 V
Early resistance is used in
transistor modelling.
Emitter Base Junction
*Emitter region doesn't have
resistance due to heavy
doping.
• Collector offers due to
early effect
• Base offers due to light
doping
CE BJT – DC Model

β is the slope dic/dib

Example – CE
Note:
2V+0.68;
2V-0.68, will be available
at the input, which is
always > 0.65V