Metal Forming Processes

MME 407

Guest Lecturer: Michael Oluwatosin Bodunrin, PhD.

16 April 2024.
 FORGING
How much do you know about forging?

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Scale of prior knowledge

2
 FORGING
What is forging?

 It is a thermomechanical processing technique

that is applied on metals or alloys to achieve
desired shape by hammering or pressing.

 It uses essentially compressive stresses to

achieve deformation.

 It can be used to improve the microstructure

and mechanical properties of metals or alloys.

 It is considered the oldest of the metal working

arts. Remember the blacksmiths

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 FORGING
Typical forged components

Pipe wrenches Pipe and pipe fittings

Gas turbine rotor

Gear Can you think of more examples? 4
 FORGING
Forging Operations

3. Drawing
out /down:
reduce
thickness/ cross
sectional area
with concurrent
2. Fullering: reduce the cross
increase in
1. Edging: shape the edge of a bar. sectional area of the portion of a
length.
Takes advantage of friction restricting component: e.g. connecting rod in
metal flow. car engines

8. Bending

6. Piercing / Cutting

5. Cogging: reduce the

4. Swaging: similar to drawing
cross sectional area but
out but uses a rotating die.
keeping the shape of the
7. Flattening component. 5
 FORGING
Classification of Forging
According to working temperature
o Hot forging: above recrystallization
temperature of the work piece.
o Cold forging: below the recrystallization
temperature of the work piece.
According to metal flow characteristics
o Upset forging: metal flow perpendicular to
the die motion e.g. cogging.
o Extrusion type forging: metal flow parallel
to the die motion e.g. piercing operation.
 Open-die forging.
 Closed-die forging/ Impression die forging.
According to the type of
equipment/source of impact
 Smith forging: source of impact is arm
of the smith – man power.
 Drop Forging: Source of impact is
board or power hammer
 Press Forging: The source of impact is
a mechanical press or an hydraulic
press
 Roll Forging: uses opposite rotating
rolls for forge components
https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=51xgS36cw4Y&pp=ygUNZm9yZ2luZyByb2xs
cw%3D%3D
According to the type of die
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 FORGING
Open-die forging versus Closed-die forging
Open-die Forging
o Carried out on flat dies or dies with very simple
shapes.
o Mostly used for large objects or when number of
parts to be produced is small.
o Deformation is confined to small portion of the
work piece.
o Dimensional accuracy is not as precise when
compared with closed-die forging.
o Often used to preform work piece prior to close-
die forging.
o Metal flows laterally between dies because
frictional effect does not allow metal flow at the
interface between the die and the work piece.
Barrelling during open-die forging.
N.B.
o Metal flows easily towards the nearest free surface
because it represent the lowest frictional path.
o Barrelling is a major concern in open-die forging.
o Barrelling coefficient (B) can be determined according
to Equation (1). It requires experimental testing.
o B ≤ 1.1 is considered acceptable for open-die uniaxial
compression.
……..Equation (1)
hf is final height, df is final diameter, ho is initial
height, and do is initial diameter
Source: Roebuck, B. et al. (2006) ‘Measurement of flow stress in hot axisymmetric
compression tests’, Materials at High Temperatures, 23(2), pp. 59–83. doi:
10.1179/mht.2006.005.
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 FORGING
Open-die forging versus Closed-die forging

Closed-die/ Impression-die Forging
o Form billets into pre-determined shapes using a
carefully machined dies.
o Dimensional accuracy is very high in closed-die
forging.
o Dies are expensive so closed-die forging is used for
large productions runs
o The process involves initial fullering and edging
followed by rough forging in a blocking die and then
finalised in a finishing die.
o Flash serves two purposes – (i) safety valve
to prevent wear and tear of dies. (ii) it ensures
the die cavity is completely filled.
o To fill the cavity, the flash dimension must be
adjusted to make the extrusion of the flash
more difficult than filling the intricate detail in
the die.
o For easy removal, forging must be tapered.
This is denoted as draft allowance. A draft
allowance of ~ 5°is recommended for steel
forgings.

o The blocking cavity and finishing cavity are machined

into the same die block

o Greatest change in shape occurs in the blocking die.

o Enough billet must be used during fullering and

edging. Excess metals called flash squirts out of the
cavity after the finishing step.
Schematic representation of closed die 8
 FORGING
Forging Load in Open-die forging & Closed-die forging

Open-die Forging Closed-die/ Impression-die Forging

To design a forged component using open-die, To design a forged component using closed-die, it
forging load (P) is very critical. For flat section it is a bit complex and the following factors must be
can be estimated using equation (2) considered:

(i) Workpiece volume and weight.

….Equation (3) (ii) Number of preforming steps and their
configurations.
Where is the flow stress which is a function of strain rate, (iii) Flash dimensions in preforming and finishing
deformation temperature and strain. A is the cross sectional dies
area and C is the constraint factor to allow for
(iv) The load (P) and energy requirements for
inhomogeneous deformation.
each forging operation
…Equation (4)

Where is the flow stress which is a function of strain rate,

deformation temperature and strain. At is the cross sectional area
of forging at the parting line, including the flash. C1 is the constraint
factor which depends on complexity of the forging.
C1 varies from 1.2 to 2.5 for upset forging between flat dies.
C1 varies from 3 to 8 for closed-die forging of simple shapes.
C1 varies from of 8 to 12 for upset for more complex shapes.

Please refer to Mechanical metallurgy by G.E Dieter, 1986, Figure 16-9 on page 598 for shape classification of forging. 9
 FORGING
Forging Equipment
Forging equipment are generally classified
based on their principle of operations. The
three broad classifications are:
(1) Energy-restricted machines: Forging
hammers limited by the amount of kinetic
energy they can dissipate to the work piece.
(2) Stroke-restricted machines: Mechanical
forging presses limited by the length of the
press stroke and load available at various
point of the stroke.
(3) Load-restricted machines: Hydraulic
presses are limited by their load.
Forging animations:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y1odpwkmJek
Factors to consider for successful
forging operation
 Available machine load of the machine must load
requirement during the entire forging process.
 Available machine energy must exceed the energy
required by the process for the entire stroke.
 The number of stroke per min that the machine can
deliver determines the production rate.
 Velocity of the machine under load or pressure
determine the strain rate, and consequently the
flow stress.
 Hammers have typically higher velocity under load
so they can deliver high strain rates (0.1 –
10000/s).
 Presses have low velocity under load, so they
operate under quasi-static strain rates (< 0.01/s).
 Dimensional accuracy is dependent on stiffness of
the machine, thus large component are used for
making forging equipment.
 Die wear can increase with increasing contact
time.
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 FORGING
Forging Equipment – Hammer

Weight of the
Hammer ram is used for Total energy supplied (W) to the blow in a
power drop:
ranking

Where m is weight of the ram, v is velocity of

the ram at start of deformation, p is air or
Board Power steam pressure acting on ram, g is
Hammer acceleration due to gravity, A is area of ram
Hammer cylinder and H is height of the ram drop.

o Upper die and ram are  Ram acceleration is

raised by friction rolls achieved through
gripping the board. gravity + air/steam
pressure.
o When board is released,
ram falls under the  Greater forging
influence of gravity to capacity is achieved
produce the blow. with power hammer.

o Energy of blow is fixed  Energy of the blow can

since mass and height of be controlled. Forging under hammer is done with repeated blows.
fall are fixed. Depending on the capacity of the machine, blows can
be between 60 and 150 per minute.
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 FORGING
Forging Equipment – Presses
Presses
Mechanical
o Eccentric crank converts
rotational motion to linear
reciprocating motion to
move the press.
o Blow is more like a
squeeze rather than
impact of the hammer.
o Longer die life than
hammer, since stoke is
shorter than with hammer.
o Initial cost is much higher
than a hammer.
o Production rate is similar
to that of hammer.
Force developed
at the end of the
Total energy supplied (W) to the blow in a
power drop:
stroke is used for
ranking
…where I is moment of inertia of the
flywheel, is the angular velocity, no is the
Hydraulic initial velocity of the flywheel and nf final
velocity of the flywheel after deformation.
 Hydraulic pressure moves
the piston in a cylinder.
 Ram velocity can be
controlled and varied during
stroke.
 Full press load is available
during the full stroke of the
ram.
 Close tolerance forgings are
obtained.
 Longer contact time is a
disadvantage
 It’s a slow speed machine.
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 FORGING
Forging Defects

1. Internal cracking: very common in open die

forging. Caused by circumferential tensile
stresses.
2. Flash cracking: caused by cracks extending
from the flash into the forged components.
3. Surface crack: caused by excessive working at
low temperature.
4. Scale pits: caused by squeezing of scales into
the pits during forging.
5. Oversized components: caused by worn out
dies, misalignment of die halves or use of
incorrect dies.
6. Cold Shut: caused by improper design of die.
Can occur due to presence of very sharp
corners in the dies.
7. Fibred flow lines: deformation at very high
strain rate (rapid speed).

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 FORGING
How much do you know about forging now?

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Scale of knowledge

Assignment
What are the advantages and
disadvantages of forging?

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Solution to assignment.

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Thank you!

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Metal Forming Process

MME 407

Guest Lecturer: Michael Oluwatosin Bodunrin, PhD.

23 April 2024.
 EXTRUSION
How much do you know about extrusion?

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Can you label the different parts in the figure? Extruded Products

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 EXTRUSION
What is Extrusion?
 It is a thermomechanical processing technique that is used
to deform metals or alloys (i.e. reduce cross section) by Classification
passing a metal block (billet) through an orifice (die) under
pressure (ram driven by an hydraulic press). Direct Hot
Indirect Cold
 High compressive stress is involved, therefore cracking that
results from tensile stresses in forging and rolling are
eliminated.

 The wall of the container and the die exert the required
compressive stresses.

 The process is suitable for difficult-to-form metals like

nickel-based alloys and stainless steel. Metals like
aluminium, copper, lead and tin are easily extruded.

 Extrusion is mainly used for producing pipes and hollow

components.

Extruded profiles
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 EXTRUSION
Direct Extrusion

Here, the ram pushes

the billet through the
wall of the container and
against a fixed die for
extrusion process to take
place.

 This is also called the forward extrusion process.

 The ram and the work piece move in the same direction.
 Friction force is high.
 Requires high pressure/force for deformation to occur.
 Material wastage is more because inhomogeneous
deformation is prominent.
 Higher production rate can be achieved and can be used
for larger cross-sections.
 Flat-faced die or conical die can be used.

What are the commonly used die materials?

Short clip on direct and indirect extrusion: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nrYv4Io0SQs
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 EXTRUSION
Indirect Extrusion

Here, the die is mounted on a hollow

ram, while the billet is fixed. The hollow
ram then pushes against the billet for
extrusion process to take place.

 This is also called the backward extrusion process.

 The hollow ram and the work piece move in opposite
direction.
 Friction force is less because there is no relative
motion between the billet and the container wall.
 Requires low pressure or force for deformation to
occur.
 Material wastage is less because an homogeneous
deformation is obtained.
 Lower production rate and extruded cross section is
limited because of the low rigidity of the hollow ram.
 Flat-faced die or conical die can be used.

Short clip on direct and indirect extrusion: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nrYv4Io0SQs 21

 EXTRUSION
Hot versus Cold Extrusion Process

Hot extrusion: is carried out above the

recrystallization temperature of
metals/alloys. Typical products are rods Cold extrusion: is carried out below the
and angle bars. recrystallization temperature of
Advantages metals/alloys, mainly at ambient
 Requires low force/pressure. temperature. Typical products aluminium
 Material is easier to work. can and collapsible tubes.
 Low to moderate strain hardening Advantages
Disadvantages  High strength and hardness due to
 Poor surface finish. excessive strain hardening.
 Inferior dimensional tolerance.  Good surface finish and high
 Oxidation of billet at high dimensional tolerance.
temperature may lead to defects.  No oxidation problems and requires
 Exposure of dies to thermal shock low maintainance.
and oxidation which causes wear Disadvantages
and tear.  Requires high force/pressure.
 Deformation heating when ram
velocity is high.

Short clip on hot and cold extrusion process: : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a6JjF0astDg 22

 EXTRUSION
Typical Cold Extrusion Process

1. Impact Extrusion
 This is a process for producing short length of
hollow shapes – toothpaste tubes and battery
cases.
 It can be direct (forward) or indirect(backward).
 It is usually performed on high-speed mechanical
press.
 It is restricted to softer metals such as aluminium,
copper, lead and tin.

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 EXTRUSION
Typical Cold Extrusion Processes
2. Hydrostatic Extrusion
 Billet is surrounded by fluid (hydrostatic
medium) in a sealed container.
 Billet is forced through the die by a high
hydrostatic pressure.
 The rate with which the billet move is not
equal to ram speed, but the volume of the
displaced hydrostatic medium.
Advantages
o Nearly constant extrusion pressure like
indirect extrusion.
o Lubrication is very effective and frictional
force is nearly absent, preserving die life.
o Good surface finish and high dimensional
accuracy can be obtained.
o Semicone die with die angle of ~20° can
be used and this reduced redundant
deformation.
Disadvantages
o Only cold extrusion is possible.
o One end of the billet has to be tapered in
order to fit the die entry angle.
o At high pressure, typically 2GPa, the fluid
is difficult to contain, because strength of
the container may have been exceeded.
o Extrusion ratio is limited, e.g., extrusion
ratio of aluminium is typically 400:1, but it
is reduced to 200:1 in hydrostatic
extrusion.
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 EXTRUSION
Extrusion of Tubing
o To make tubes, a mandrel is fastened to the
end of the extrusion ram.
o The mandrel extends to the entrance of the
extrusion die.
o The clearance between the die wall and the
mandrel determine the thickness of the tube.
o Generally a hollow billet is used. The billet is
pierced via casting, machining or hot piercing
in a separate pass.
o The piercing of a solid billet and the extrusion
can happen in one step. Here the mandrel and
ram move independently although along the
same axis.
Extruded tube made with a) mandrel moving independent of the ram; b) a spider die.
o A spider die/ porthole extrusion die with
a short mandrel can also be used to
make tubing from a solid billet.
o Although separate streams of metal will
flow around the bridge which supports
the short mandrel, the separate
streams of metal are joined in a
welding chamber that surrounds the
mandrel.
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 EXTRUSION
Extrusion Equipment
Extrusion are made mostly hydraulic presses and they are classified into two broad
groups – vertical hydraulic presses and horizontal hydraulic presses
Vertical Hydraulic Presses
Capacity: 300 - 2000 tons.
Used for uniform and thin-wall tubing.
Advantages
• Higher production rate.
• Easy alignment between the press
tool and the ram.
• Need for less floor space than
horizontal presses.
• Uniform cooling is achieved in the
billet so symmetrically uniform
deformation is obtained
Limitations
• Considerable head room is needed,
if the extruded product is long.
• A floor pit is frequently necessary.
Horizontal Hydraulic Presses
Capacity: 1500 - 5000 tons or more.
Used for most commercial extrusion
of bars & tubes.
Advantages
• Floor pit is not needed.
• Considerable head room is not
needed for longer extrusion
products.
Limitations
• Non-uniform deformation
because the bottom of the billet is
in contact with the container, and
will cool more rapidly than the top
surface.
• More floor space is needed.
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 EXTRUSION
Extrusion Variables
Extrusion variable are independent and Breakthrough pressure: max. pressure at
dependent variables that influence the which metal begin to flow through the die in
quality of extruded products. direct extrusion.
These include:
1. Breakthrough pressure.
2. Die angle (α).
3. Extrusion ratio; Fractional reduction in
area.
4. Ram velocity; Velocity of extruded
products (speed of deformation).
5. Deformation temperature.
6. Frictional conditions at the die and
container.
7. Types of lubricant.
8. Extrusion force.

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EXTRUSION
Extrusion Variables

The initial build-up pressure is due to the initial

compression of the billet to fill the extrusion container.
This can also be linked to the die-angle (α).

Low die angles increase the surface area of the die

which results in increased friction at the die-billet
interface. Higher friction increased the required ram
force.

High die angles cause turbulence in metal flow during

reduction, thus resulting in the increase of the required
ram force.

An optimum die angle exists for extrusion processes.

For most extrusion operations, the optimum is
between 45 to 60°.

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EXTRUSION
Extrusion Variables

Extrusion ratio (R) is the ratio of the initial cross- 𝑨𝒐

𝑹=
sectional area (Ao) of the billet to the final cross- 𝑨𝒇
sectional area(Af) after extrusion.

Extrusion ratio in steel is about 40:1 for hot

extrusion and 400:1 for hot extrusion of aluminium.

𝑨𝒇
Fractional reduction in area, r 𝒓 =𝟏 −
𝑨𝒐

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EXTRUSION
Extrusion Variables
Velocity of extruded product (Vx) is given by  Deformation temperature/working
the product of the velocity of the ram and the temperature) must be carefully selected
extrusion ratio. to avoid problems like incipient melting
𝑽 𝒙 = 𝑹𝒂𝒎𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 × 𝑹 (metals) or hot shortness (alloys).

 Like extrusion speed, the selection of

 The selection of extrusion speed must be
safe deformation temperature is
carefully selected. It is best determined
determined experimentally by trial and
experimentally via trial and error for each
error. Processing maps can help.
alloy and billet size.
 Safe deformation temperature should be
 Very high extrusion speed can cause
below the incipient melting or hot
deformation heating in the billet and this will
shortness range i.e. below the upper
lead to defects like hot shortness.
working temperature of the billet.
 Increased ram speed or extrusion speed to
about ten folds leads to 50% increase in
extrusion pressure and flow stress.

 High extrusion speed may be beneficial for

high temperature extrusion of some metals –
high strength alloys.
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EXTRUSION
Extrusion Variables
Frictional condition and type of lubricants

 If sticking friction prevails between the billet and the container during
extrusion, a thick skin of the billet will be left in the container.
Therefore, lubrication is needed to prevent such from happening.

 Lubrication aids metal flow during extrusion, provides good surface

finish and lower extrusion forces.

 A good lubricant should have low shear strength yet be stable

enough to prevent breakdown at high temperatures.

 Some recommended lubricant include:

 Molten glass for hot extrusion of steel and nickel based alloys. This
lubricant also serves as thermal insulator that prevents heat loss to
the tool during extrusion.

 Phosphate conversion-coating followed by soap or wax can be used

as lubricant during cold extrusion of steel

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EXTRUSION
Extrusion Variables

Extrusion pressure is the extrusion

force divided by the cross-sectional area
of the billet.

Extrusion force depends on:

Strength of billet material, extrusion ratio,
friction between the billet and container
and the die surfaces, deformation
temperature and deformation speed.

Extrusion force (F) can be expressed as:

𝑭 = 𝑨 𝒐 𝒌 𝒍𝒏
( )
𝑨𝒐
𝑨𝒇

Where k is the extrusion constant, an overall

factor which accounts for the flow stress, Extrusion constant for different
friction and inhomogeneous deformation. It is metals at different temperatures
determined experimentally.

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 EXTRUSION
Extrusion Defects

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Metal Forming Process

MME 407

Guest Lecturer: Michael Oluwatosin Bodunrin, PhD.

30 April 2024.
 WIRE/TUBE DRAWING
How much do you know about wire & tube drawing?

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 WIRE/TUBE DRAWING
Wire, rod and bar drawing
 Wire, rod or bar drawing is a bulk forming process in which a metal is pulled through a die by means of a
tensile force applied to the exit side of the die.

 This process reduces the cross-sectional area of the metal through compressive stresses exerted by the
drawing die.

 The initial stock size or diameter of the final product and the stages of the drawing operation can be
used to distinguish between rod, bar or wire drawing.

 Initial stock size: rod or bar make use of stock size with larger diameter because the final diameter is
larger than that of wire drawing. Final diameter of wire can be as small as 0.03mm, hence initial stock
with much smaller diameter is used.

 Stages of the operation: Bar drawing is a mostly done as a single stage operation in which the stock is
pulled through one die opening. Inlet bars are straight and not in coil form, which limits the length of work
that can be drawn. Wire drawing is done as multi-stage operation involving pulling of stock through a
series of dies. The number of dies could vary between 4 and 12.This is often referred to as continuous
drawing. The stock is usually in coils form.

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 WIRE/TUBE DRAWING
Drawing Equipment

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 WIRE/TUBE DRAWING
Drawing Dies
Drawing dies are usually made from tungsten carbide. A
typical drawing die has four distinct feature:

(i) Entry Zone: This is generally a bell-shaped mouth that

does not contact the work-piece. Its function is to contain
and push the lubricant into the die and prevent wearing of
work and die surfaces.

(ii) Approach Angle/Zone: This is the region where the

actual reduction in diameter occurs. It is cone-shaped with
an angle(half-angle - α) normally ranging from 6-20°.

(iii) Bearing Surface: Determines the size of the final drawn

work-piece. It guides the rod or wire as it exists the die.

(iv) Back Relief Angle: It is provided with a back relief

angle (half-angle) of about 25-30°.

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 WIRE/TUBE DRAWING
Simple Analysis of Wire Drawing

39
 WIRE/TUBE DRAWING
Simple Analysis of Wire Drawing

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 WIRE/TUBE DRAWING
Simple Analysis of Wire Drawing
Maximum reduction per pass

41
 WIRE/TUBE DRAWING
Tube Drawing
This operation is used to reduce the diameter or wall thickness
of the seamless tubes and pipes.

Tube drawing can be done either with or without mandrel.

The simplest method uses no mandrel and is used for

diameter reduction called as TUBE SINKING. The limitation of
this method is that inside diameter cannot be controlled.

Fixed Mandrel/Plug: In this case, a mandrel is attached to a

long support bar to control the inside diameter and wall
thickness during the operation. The length of the support bar
restricts the length of the tube that can be drawn. Up to 30%
reduction in cross-sectional area.

Floating Mandrel / Plug: As the name suggests the mandrel

floats inside the tube and its shape is designed so that it finds
a suitable position in the reduction zone of the die. There is no
length restriction in this as seen with the fixed mandrel. Up to
45% reduction in cross-sectional area.

Moving Mandrel/Plug :It is semi-floating mandrel drawing. It is

a mix between fixed plug drawing and floating plug drawing.
It gives similar result as floating plug but it is designed for
multiple diameter of straight tubes. It gives better surface finish
than rod drawing. 42
 WIRE/TUBE DRAWING
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Thank you!

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