INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY

BSW214
Chileshe Mulenga

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 WEEK ONE

Unit 1: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY

Objective:
- This unit seeks to introduce students to sociological thoughts and to acquiring the necessary skill for
community action.
- Present a background and Historical Understanding of Sociology.
- To orient Sociology to students in relation with the basic Social Sciences.
- To introduce students to major perspectives in sociological thoughts.

Outcome: at the end of this unit, students should be able:

- To extensively Define Sociology.

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  Definitions:
- Etymological definitions of sociology illustrate the combination of a science and society
- Sociologists have underscored remarkable evidence that sociology is not merely a study of society.
- Here is a diversity of understandings of sociology.
 Sociology is defined as the systematic study of social behavior and human groups.

 Sociology is defined as the science that studies human society and social behavior.

 the study and classification of human societies Sociology is the study of society.

 It is a social science (with which it is informally synonymous) that uses various methods of empirical
investigation and critical analysis to develop and refine a body of knowledge and theory about human
social activity, often with the goal of applying such.

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  Culture concepts

Sociologists have broken culture into three different levels, namely trait, complex and pattern.

1. Culture Trait is an individual tool, art, or belief that is related to a particular situation or need. A trait

can be a specific way in which we greet people.

2. Culture Complex is a cluster of interrelated traits. For example a game of football is a culture complex

that involves a variety of such as traits e.g. kicking, football and running.

3. Culture Pattern is a combination of a number of culture complexes into an interrelated whole. For

example, the complexes of sport basketball, softball, swimming, tennis, soccer and tract combine to

form the American athletic pattern.

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  FATHER OF SOCIOLOGY
1. Auguste Comte
- He was a French philosopher Auguste Comte. He is often called the “father of sociology”
- he First used the term “sociology” in 1838 to refer to the scientific study of society.
- He believed that all societies develop and progress through the following stages:
1. Religious stage
2. Metaphysical stage
3. Scientific stage
- Argued that society needs scientific knowledge based on facts and evidence to solve its problems. This can be
given by the scientific stage.
- He believed that we do not need speculation and superstition, which characterize the religious and
metaphysical stages of social development to solve a problem.
- Additionally, Comte viewed the science of sociology as consisting of two branches:
1. Dynamics which is study of the processes by which societies change
2. Statics which the study of the processes by which societies endure.
He also envisioned sociologists as eventually developing a base of scientific social knowledge that would guide
society into positive directions.
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 Herbert Spencer
-He was the 19th‐century Englishman. He was born is 1820 and died in 1903.
-Herbert Spencer compared society to a living organism with interdependent parts.
-He said change in one part of society causes change in the other parts, so that every part contributes to
the stability and survival of society as a whole.
-If one part of society malfunctions, the other parts must adjust to the crisis and contribute even more
to preserve society. Family, education, government, industry, and religion comprise just a few of the
parts of the “organism” of society.
-Spencer suggested that society will correct its own defects through the natural process of “survival of
the fittest.”
-The societal “organism” naturally leans toward homeostasis, or balance and stability.
-Social problems work themselves out when the government leaves society alone.
-The “fittest”, i.e the rich, powerful, and successful enjoy their status because nature has “selected”
them to do so.
-In contrast, nature has doomed the “unfit” i.e. the poor, weak, and unsuccessful to failure.

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- They must fend for themselves without social assistance if society is to remain healthy and even
progress to higher levels.
- Thus according to him governmental interference in the “natural” order of society weakens society
by wasting the efforts of its leadership in trying to defy the laws of nature.
 Karl Marx
- Not everyone has shared Spencer's vision of societal harmony and stability.
- Chief among those who disagreed was the German political philosopher and economist Karl
Marx (1818–1883), who observed society's exploitation of the poor by the rich and powerful.
- Marx argued that Spencer's healthy societal “organism” was a falsehood. Rather than
interdependence and stability, Marx claimed that social conflict, especially class conflict, and
competition mark all societies.
- The class of capitalists that Marx called the bourgeoisie particularly (enraged angered) him.
Members of the bourgeoisie own the means of production and exploit the class of laborers,
called the proletariat, who do not own the means of production.
- Marx believed that the very natures of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat lock the two classes in
conflict.
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 - But he then took his ideas of class conflict one step further: He predicted that the laborers are not

selectively “unfit,” but are destined to overthrow the capitalists.

- Such a class revolution would establish a “class‐free” society in which all people work according to

their abilities and receive according to their needs.

- Unlike Spencer, Marx believed that economics, not natural selection, determines the differences

between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

- He further claimed that a society's economic system decides peoples' norms, values, mores, and

religious beliefs, as well as the nature of the society's political, governmental, and educational

systems.

- Also unlike Spencer, Marx urged people to take an active role in changing society rather than simply

trusting it to evolve positively on its own.

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  Emile Durkheim
- Despite their differences, Marx, Spencer, and Comte all acknowledged the importance of using
science to study society, although none actually used scientific methods.
- Not until Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) did a person systematically apply scientific methods to
sociology as a discipline.
- A French philosopher and sociologist, Durkheim stressed the importance of studying social facts, or
patterns of behavior characteristic of a particular group.
- The phenomenon of suicide especially interested Durkheim
- Durkheim formulated his conclusions about the causes of suicide based on the analysis of large
amounts of statistical data collected from various European countries.
- Durkheim certainly advocated the use of systematic observation to study sociological events, but he
also recommended that sociologists avoid considering people's attitudes when explaining society.
Sociologists should only consider as objective “evidence” what they themselves can directly observe.
In other words, they must not concern themselves with people's subjective experiences.
  Max Weber
- The German sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920) disagreed with the “objective evidence only”
position of Durkheim.
- He argued that sociologists must also consider people's interpretations of events—not just the
events themselves.
- Weber believed that individuals' behaviors cannot exist apart from their interpretations of the
meaning of their own behaviors, and that people tend to act according to these interpretations.
- Because of the ties between objective behavior and subjective interpretation, Weber believed that
sociologists must inquire into people's thoughts, feelings, and perceptions regarding their own
behaviors.
- Weber recommended that sociologists adopt his method of Verstehen (vûrst e hen), or empathetic
understanding. Verstehen allows sociologists to mentally put themselves into “the other person's
shoes” and thus obtain an “interpretive understanding” of the meanings of individuals' behaviors
  Background of sociology

- Sociology evolved as an academic response to the challenges of modernity, such as industrialization,

urbanization, secularization, and a perceived process of enveloping rationalization.
- Because sociology is such a broad discipline, it can be difficult to define, even for professional
sociologists.
- The field generally concerns the social rules and processes that bind and separate people not only as
individuals, but as members of associations, groups, communities and institutions, and includes the
examination of the organization and development of human social life.
- The sociological field of interest ranges from the analysis of short contacts between anonymous
individuals on the street to the study of global social processes.
- In the terms of sociologists Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann, social scientists seek an
understanding of the Social Construction of Reality.
- Most sociologists work in one or more subfields.
- One useful way to describe the discipline is as a cluster of sub-fields that examine different
dimensions of society.
- For example, social stratification studies inequality and class structure; demography studies
changes in a population size or type; criminology examines criminal behavior and deviance; and
political sociology studies the interaction between society and state.
- Since its inception, sociological epistemologies, methods, and frames of enquiry, have significantly
expanded and diverged.
- Sociologists use a diversity of research methods, drawing upon either empirical techniques or
critical theory.
- Common modern methods include case studies, historical research, interviewing, participant
observation, social network analysis, survey research, statistical analysis, and model building,
among other approaches.
- Since the late 1970s, many sociologists have tried to make the discipline useful for non-academic
purposes.
- The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, developers, and
others interested in resolving social problems and formulating public policy, through
subdisciplinary areas such as evaluation research, methodological assessment, and public sociology.
New sociological sub-fields continue to appear - such as community studies, computational
sociology, environmental sociology, network analysis, actor-network theory and a growing list,
 WEEK 2

Unit 2: SOCIOLOGY AND SCIENTIFIC METHODS

- OBJECTIVE: This unit introduces students to the main subject matter of Sociology. We will analyze
society and demonstrate how research can be used as a tool to improve society.
- OUTCOMES: at the end of this unit, students should be able to:
- Understand society and groups in it
- Use theories to explain social diversity and social reality.
- Understand the methods that govern sociological research
 Sociological Research
- Sociology is the science that studies human society and social behavior.
- Because sociology is a science, it seeks answers to questions through research empirical.
- Empirical research is research that relies on the use of experience, observation and experimentation to
collect facts.
- In scientific terms, these facts are called data.
- If something can be seen, tested, smelt, felt or heard, it is considered to be empirical.
- Therefore, sociologists collect empirical data by using the scientific method.
- The scientific method is an objective, logical and systematic way of collecting empirical data and arriving at
conclusions.
- Researchers who use the scientific method are advantaged in the following way:
a) They prevent their own motions, values and biases from interfering in the research process.

b) Use careful and correct reasoning in drawing conclusions from their data.

c) Carry out research in an organized and methodical manner.

 Characteristics of social research

- Basic characteristics of social research include:
1. Issues of interest
- What characterizes the social research is the main interest of sociologists which involves examining the
structure and function of various features of society;
- They are also interested in behavior of society members – with similar characteristics, stability and change.
- They seek to understand how and why certain features of society change over time, while other features
remain relatively stable.
 2. Causation and correlation
- Sociologists want to uncover the causes of events and the connection between events
happening in society.
- They believe that things do not just happen, all events have causes.
- Through social research, Sociologists study cause and effect by examining the relationship
among variables.
- A variable is characteristic that can differ from one event, individual, group or situation to
another in a measurable way.
- Anything that can vary in quality or quantity from case to case can be considered a variable.
Age, race, income, educational levels, marital statuses are examples of variables.
- A causal relationship exists when a change in variable causes a change in another variable.
- There are two different kinds of variables:
- An independent variable is a variable that causes a change in another variable.
- A dependent variable is a variable that is changed by the independent variable.
 Determining cause and effect
- The first step in determining cause and effect is to establish whether a correlation exist between two variables.
- A correlation exists when a change in one variable is regularly associated with a change in another variable.
- Correlations may or may not be causal.
- In addition, correlations may be either negative or positive.
- A positive correlation is where both variables change in the same direction.
- Cigarette smoking, for example, is positively correlated with diseases like lung cancer.
- The higher the rate of cigarette use, the higher the rate of lung cancer.
- Negative correlation is where the variable changes in opposite directions.
- As individuals age, for instance, the need fewer hours of sleep.
- A spurious correlation exists when variables appear to be related but actually are being affected by the existence
of a third variable.
- For instance, hospitalization and death are correlated. This does not, however, mean that hospitalization causes
death.
- It is more likely that a third variable – serious illness – is responsible for the high correlation.
- Sociologists determine whether variables are causally related, correlated or spuriously related through the use of
controls.
 WEEK 3
UNIT 3: SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH
- Social work research can be defined as the ‘critical entry into and the scientific testing of social
organization, its functions and methods in order to verify, generalize and extend social work
knowledge, skills, concepts and theory’.
- It is an inquiry which means that it follows same scientific methods and steps like any other scientific
research.
- Social work research looks at how social work organization’s function.
- It helps us to know how we are functioning as a profession, are we effective and efficient in service
delivery?
- There are a number of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) providing social services to the
Zambian communities, the questions are:
a) Are the people benefiting from services provided by these NGOs?
b) are the projects having an impact on the lives of individuals,
c) How accountable are these organizations?
d) Do the services reach the intended beneficiaries?
- The good example is that of NGOs claiming to fight social problems such as HIV/AIDS, street kids,
poverty .e.t.c.
- Despite having a good number of such organizations, we have seen the tremendous increase in the
number of the named social problems.
- Hence the importance of social work research is to keep track of what is happening and establish
whether social work programmes are needed, relevant, effective and efficient and what impact they
are making in improving the welfare of the people.
 OBJECTIVES OF SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH
- Phillip Klein suggested five objectives of social work research and these are:
 To establish, identify and measure the need for services.
-Organisations can never know which particular groups of people need certain services, unless they carry
out the research or needs assessment survey.
-This will establish whether it is necessary to increase social services to the orphans and vulnerable
children (OVC). You can know exactly which type of services are needed most in the community by
carrying out a social work research and establish the need for social services.
 To measure the services being provided.
-Programmes need to be measured in order to see how many intended or targeted beneficiaries were
reached and how man people benefited from the project.
-This is done through an evaluative research.
-This research looks at the effectiveness, efforts, impact and sustainability of the project.
 To test or gauge and evaluate results of social work operation.
-This involves testing ourselves as professionals in relation to our operations. i.e. are we really
following the codes of ethics?
-Are we being effective? What is the failure rate?
-If we have clients coming to see us, how many of them go through the whole process?
-Why do my clients don’t back after the first interview? e.t.c.
-Therefore by carrying out the research, we will know the reason why and come up with best
intervention strategies which can be used in order to sustain the client.
 To test the ethicacy of social work techniques
- this is related to the third objective above even though it concentrates much on evaluation.
-Social work employs different types of techniques in solving psychological and social problems like
counseling.
-These techniques should be evaluated to establish how effective they are in service delivery. For
example how effective is phone counseling or online education?
 To develop the methodology of social work:
-we need to understand the most suitable methodology that social workers can use in carrying out
research.
-This type of the research should be based on ethics. e.g. carrying out an experiment to see whether
the child who is denied food performs better academically than one who is well-fed.
-This type of research has ethical complications, because social welfare is about providing food to
people and not denying them food because of an experiment.
-Even when you are carrying out an observation, there are ethics to consider.
-An experiment or research on condom use does not mean a researcher witnessing people having sex
with or without a condom. A researcher should not cause any harm to clients or respondents or
uncover their privacy or abuse their rights.
  TYPES OF SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH
- The most commonly used types of research in social work are: social survey and evaluative
researches.
A. SOCIAL SURVEY
- used in social work research and are usually conducted to explore the needs of the population
- Also used to find out how adequately these needs are met, at the same time if needs are not met,
what necessary changes should be put in place in order to meet peoples needs.
- Surveys are also excellent vehicles for measuring attitudes and orientations in a large population.
E.g. if you want to find out what people think about a new product, you can not ask the entire
population but you will get a representative sample.
- Standardized questionnaires with pre-set questions used in survey research have an important
strength in regard to measurement.
 Advantages/strengths of a social survey
-Useful in describing the characteristics of a large population

-They are flexible, they allow you to answer many questions or ask many questions on the topic,
giving you considerable flexibility in your analysis
 Weaknesses of the social survey
-The environment of standardized questionnaires often results in fitting a round leg in a square hole.
-This means that certain questions are limited in analyzing the personal attitudes of people.
-For instance questions which require YES or NO answers do not give room for respondents to
explain or express their feelings as to why they choose the NO or YES answer.
-A survey researcher rarely develops a feel for the total life situation in which respondents are
thinking and acting.
-Surveys are subject to artificiality; surveys can not measure social action.
-They can easily collect self-made reports of past action or of perspective or hypothetical action.
-In many ways the surveys are inflexible.
-Surveys researchers are generally weak on validity and strong liability in comparison with field
research. .i.e. artificiality of the survey formats puts strength on validity.
-Surveys in such cases must be regarded as approximate indicators of what the researchers had in
mind.
-For instance, in most cases, options in the questionnaires are suggested by the researcher; for
example a) agree. B) Disagree. c) Strongly agree. E.t.c.
EVALUATIVE RESEARCH
- This is a process used to determine systematically and as objectively as possible the effectiveness,
efficiency, impact and sustainability of the project.
- In other ways, it is an analysis of experience to see if the stated objectives have been achieved and
determine how and why such objectives were not achieved.
- Evaluative research is concerned with both negative and positive results.
- The broader view of evaluation involves looking at outcomes, impacts as well as analysis of efforts
including the considerations of programming activities.
- It is a process of making judgments about the merit, worth or value of change efforts.
- It is a comprehensive evaluation of the whole system in that it combines the efforts, the outcomes,
the processes and all related issues.
- It focuses on the degree to which a programme or project is meeting its goals associated problems
and any unanticipated efforts created.
- In short, programme evaluation is concerned with evaluating the value or worth of a particular
programme.
  Types of Evaluative Research
 Formative Research
- This type of evaluation is done in the early stages and through out the programme.
- This deals with understanding people’s feelings, attitudes and perceptions of a project through out
the stages it takes to reach fruition.
- The advantage of this type of research is that you can see whether or not you are achieving stated
objectives at each stage of your programme.
- It is also easy for the management to correct the mistakes made at each stage of the project life cycle
and redirect the project.
- It also helps people with programmes to see if they are going according to plan, than wait until the
project is over.
  Summative Research
- This is a type of evaluative research which is done at the end or completion of the project or
programme.
- A project is a set of activities that one plans to carry out, that are time-bound, well-planned,
developmentally appropriate, cost effective and addresses needs felt.
- A programme is a set of project that addresses needs of the individual, group and community.
- For instance, after completing the project, one needs to look back and see whether the project has
successfully accomplished all the goals/aims and objectives that had been set or not.
- It takes in to account everything that has been happening within the time of the project.
- It refers to outcomes
- It shows whether the project has worked or not
- Whether the project has achieved its objectives or not
 Basic Assumption Of Evaluative Research

-There are three basic assumptions about evaluative research and as a social researcher, these are the

most important things you look at in any project or programme before embarking on an evaluative

research of a project or programme in an organisation.

1. There should be a clearly articulated programme:

-it should be seen and make logical sense or clearly linked to the objectives.

2. It must have clearly specified goals, objectives and effects:

-these objectives should be clear both on paper and as one communicates.

3. There must be rational linking:

-This is logical link between programme activities to the programme goals.

-This means that there must be a link or relationship between what we say we want to do or achieve

and what we are doing

 WEEK 4
UNIT 4: Culture as Distinct from Society
- Objective: This unit introduces culture to students and its dimensions. This unit further explains the
nature of culture and its dimensions in social interaction.
- Objectives: at the end of the this unit, students should be able to
 Define the term Culture
 Know the importance and functions of culture
 Understand the dimensions of society

 DEFINITION (our way of life)

-Culture is defined as the totality of learned, socially transmitted custom, knowledge, material objects
and behavior.
-It is a whole complex which includes knowledge, belief, and art and law, custom acquired by a man
as a member of society.
 TYPES OF CULTURE
-There are two (2) types namely: material and nonmaterial culture.
-Material culture: refers to the physical technological aspects to our daily lives, including food items,
houses, factories, raw materials.
-Nonmaterial culture: refers to the way of using material objects in custom, beliefs, philosophies,
governments and patterns of communication.
 NATURE OF CULTURE
-Culture is continually changing. It is dynamic rather than static.
-New material objects are constantly being introduced, as new words, expression and ideas.
 CHARACTERISTICS
-There are four (4) characteristics of culture.
 Culture is learned and shared: People are socialized into rules, beliefs and values of our society.
Therefore, culture is learned and not inherited.
 Culture is transmitted through language: It is passed on to new members entering the society
through language. Children and migrants go through the process of socialization.
- Culture has similarities and differences: They are things which are found in all cultures called cultural
universal e.g. funeral rites, marriage and sexual restrictions etc. How these things are celebrated or
carried out are different called as cultural variations.
- Culture is ethnocentric and relative: People see their own culture as being the best is called
ethnocentrism. They look down on cultures of other people. However, some people think that every
culture should be judged by its own standards is called cultural relativism.
 ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
All cultures consist of five basic elements in additional to physical objects.
 Language is an abstract system of word meanings and symbols for all aspects of culture. It
includes speech, written, characteristics, numbers, symbols and nonverbal gesture and expressions.
 Cultural values are these collective conceptions of what is considered good, desirable and proper
or bad, undesirable and improper in culture.
- They indicate that what people in a given culture prefer as well as what they find important and
morally right or wrong.
 Norms: are established standards of behavior maintained by a society.
- Norms are classified as either formal or informal.
- Formal Norms are written down. Mores are deemed necessary for the welfare of society.
Folkways are norms governing everyday life.
 Sanctions are penalties and rewards: conduct concerning a social norm conformity can lead to
positive sanctions such as a pay rise, a medal, a word of gratitude. Negative sanctions include
fine, trials, imprisonment and contempt.
 Symbol: is anything that stands for something else. By “stand for” mean that the symbol has a
shared meaning attached to it. Any word, gesture, image, sound, physical object event or element
of natural word can serve as a symbol as long as people recognize that it carries a particular
meaning.
 ATTITUDES TOWARDS CULTURE VARIATION
1. Ethnocentrism
-Refers to the tendency to assume that one culture and ways of life are looked at as superior to all
others.
-The ethnocentric person sees his or her own group as the centre or defining point and views all other
cultures as deviations from what is “normal”.
2. Cultural relativism
-view people’s behavior from the perspective of their own culture.
-It places a priority on understanding other culture rather than dismissing them as “strange” or “exotic”.
-Cultural relativism employs the kind of value neutrality.
3. Xenocentrism
- the belief that the products, styles, or ideas of one society are inferior to those that originate
elsewhere.
- In a sense, it is a reverse of ethnocenrism. Consumers in developing nations frequently turn back on
their locally produced goods and instead purchase items imported from Europe or North America.
4. Sub-culturalism

- Subculture is a segment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of mores, folkways

and values that differ from the larger society.
- Existence of many subcultures is characteristics of complex societies.

5. Counter-culturalism
- is a subculture that deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger culture.
- Counterculture thrives among the young who have the least investment in the existing
culture.
 THE CONCEPT OF 'HIGH' CULTURE
- Many people today think of culture in the way that it was thought of in Europe during the 18th
and early 19th centuries.
- This concept of culture reflected inequalities within European societies and their colonies
around the world.
- This understanding of culture equates culture with civilization and contrasts both with nature or
non-civilization.
- According to this understanding of culture, some countries are more civilized than others, and
some people are more cultured than others.
- Theorists like Matthew Arnold (1822-1888) believed that culture is simply that which is created
by "the best that has been thought and said in the world" (p. 6).
- Anything that doesn't fit into this category is labeled as chaos or anarchy.
- From this perspective, culture is closely tied to cultivation, which is the progressive refinement
of human behavior.
- In practice, culture referred to elite goods and activities such as haute cuisine, high fashion or
- The word cultured referred to people who knew about and took part in these activities. For
example, someone who used culture in this sense might argue that classical music is more
refined than music by working-class people, such as jazz or the indigenous music traditions of
aboriginal peoples.
- People who use culture in this way tend not to use it in the plural. They believe that there are
not distinct cultures, each with their own internal logic and values, but rather only a single
standard of refinement to which all groups are held accountable.
- Thus people who differ from those who believe themselves to be cultured in this sense are not
usually understood as having a different culture; they are understood as being uncultured.
 THE CHANGING CONCEPT OF CULTURE
- During the Romantic Era, scholars in Germany, especially those concerned with nationalism,
developed a more inclusive notion of culture as worldview.
- That is, each ethnic group is characterized by a distinct and incommensurable world view.
- Although more inclusive, this approach to culture still allowed for distinctions between civilized
and primitive or tribal cultures.
- By the late 19th century, anthropologists had changed the concept of culture to include a
wider variety of societies, ultimately resulting in the concept of culture as outlined above -
objects and symbols, the meaning given to those objects and symbols, and the norms,
values, and beliefs that pervade social life.
- This new perspective has also removed the evaluative element of the concept of culture and
instead proposes distinctions rather than rankings between different cultures. For instance,
the high culture of elites is now contrasted with popular or pop culture. In this sense, high
culture no longer refers to the idea of being cultured, as all people are cultured.
- High culture simply refers to the objects, symbols, norms, values, and beliefs of a particular
group of people; popular culture does the same.
- Most social scientists today reject the cultured vs. uncultured concept of culture.
- Social scientists recognize that non-elites are as cultured as elites (and that non-Westerners
are just as civilized); they simply have a different culture.
 THE ORIGINS OF CULTURE
- Attentive to the theory of evolution, anthropologists assumed that all human beings are equally
evolved, and the fact that all humans have cultures must in some way be a result of human
evolution.
- But they were also wary (cautious) of using biological evolution to explain differences between
specific cultures - an approach that either was a form of, or legitimized forms of, racism.
- Anthropologists believed biological evolution produced an inclusive notion of culture, a concept
that anthropologists could apply equally to non-literate and literate societies, or to nomadic and to
sedentary societies.
- They argued that through the course of their evolution, human beings evolved a universal human
capacity to classify experiences, and encode and communicate them symbolically.
- Since these symbolic systems were learned and taught, they began to develop independently of
biological evolution (in other words, one human being can learn a belief, value, or way of doing
something from another, even if they are not biologically related).
- But that this capacity for symbolic thinking and social learning is a product of human evolution
confounds older arguments about nature versus nurture.
- This view of culture argues that people living apart from one another develop unique cultures.
- However, elements of different cultures can easily spread from one group of people to another.
- Culture is dynamic and can be taught and learned, making it a potentially rapid form of adaptation
to changes in physical conditions.
- Anthropologists view culture as not only a product of biological evolution but as a supplement to
it; it can be seen as the main means of human adaptation to the natural world.
- This view of culture as a symbolic system with adaptive functions, which varies from place to
place, led anthropologists to conceive of different cultures as defined by distinct patterns (or
structures) of enduring
- Anthropologists thus distinguish between material culture and symbolic culture, not only because
each reflects different kinds of human activity, but also because they constitute different kinds of
data that require different methodologies to study.
- This view of culture, which came to dominate anthropology between World War I and World War
II, implied that each culture was bounded and had to be understood as a whole, on its own terms.
- The result is a belief in cultural relativism, which suggests that there are no "better" or "worse"
cultures, just different cultures..
- Recent research suggests that human culture has reversed the causal direction suggested above and
influence human evolution.
- One well-known illustration of this is the rapid spread of genetic instructions that left on a gene
that produces a protein that allows humans to digest lactose.
- This adaptation spread rapidly in Europe around 4,000 BCE with the domestication of mammals,
as humans began harvesting their milk for consumption.
 LEVEL OF ABSTRACTION OF CULTURE
- Another element of culture that is important for a clear understanding of the concept is level of
abstraction.
- Culture ranges from the concrete, cultural object (e.g., the understanding of a work of art) to
micro-level interpersonal interactions (e.g., the socialization of a child by his/her parents) to a
macro-level influence on entire societies (e.g., the Puritanical roots of the U.S. that can be used
to justify the exportation of democracy – a lá the Iraq War).
- It is important when trying to understand the concept of culture to keep in mind that the
concept can have multiple levels of meaning.
 THE ARTIFICIALITY OF CULTURAL CATEGORIZATION
-One of the more important points to understand about culture is that it is an artificial categorization of
elements of social life.
-As Griswold puts it, There is no such thing as culture or society out there in the real world.
-There are only people who work, raise children, love, think, worship and behave in a variety of ways.
-To speak of culture as one thing and society as another is to make an analytical distinction between
two different aspects of human experience.
-One way to think of the distinction is that culture designates the expressive aspect of human existence,
whereas society designates the relational (and often practical) aspect. (p. 4)
-In the above quote, Griswold emphasizes that culture is distinct from society but affirms that this
distinction is, like all classifications, artificial.
-Humans do not experience culture in a separate or distinct way from society.
-Culture and society are truly two-sides of a coin; a coin that makes up social life.
-Yet the distinction between the two, while artificial, is useful for a number of reasons. For instance, the
distinction between culture and society is of particular use when exploring how norms and values are
transmitted from generation to generation and answering the question of cultural conflict between
people of different cultural backgrounds
 WEEK 5

Unit 5: THEORIES OF CULTURE

- While there are numerous theoretical approaches employed to understand 'culture', this chapter uses just

one model to illustrate how sociologists understand the concept.

 Integrationist model advocated by Ritzer.

- In this model, Ritzer proposes four highly interdependent elements in his sociological model:

1. a macro-objective component (e.g., society, law, bureaucracy),

2. a micro-objective component (e.g., patterns of behavior and human interaction),

3. a macro-subjective component (e.g., culture, norms, and values),

4. a micro-subjective component (e.g., perceptions, beliefs).
- This model is of particular use in understanding the role of culture in sociological research because it
presents two axes for understanding culture:
a) one ranging from objective (society) to subjective (culture and cultural interpretation);
b) the other ranging from the macro-level (norms) to the micro-level (individual level
beliefs).
- If used for understanding a specific cultural phenomenon, like the displaying of abstract art, this
model depicts how cultural norms can influence individual behavior.
- This model also posits that individual level values, beliefs, and behaviors can, in turn, influence the
macro-level culture.
- This is, in fact, part of what David Halle finds: while there are certainly cultural differences based on
class, they are not unique to class. Displayers of abstract art tend not only to belong to the upper-
class, but also are employed in art-production occupations.
- This would indicate that there are multiple levels of influence involved in art tastes – both broad
cultural norms and smaller level occupational norms in addition to personal preferences.
 THE FUNCTION OF CULTURE
- Culture can also be seen to play a specific function in social life.
- According to Griswold culture provides
1. orientation: provides guidance, it provides adaptation with easiness
2. wards off chaos: it brings social maintenance and order.
3. morality: directs behavior toward certain lines of action and away from others.
4. Griswold reiterates this point by explaining that, Groups and societies need collective
representations of themselves to inspire sentiments of unity and mutual support, and
culture fulfills this need.
- In other words, culture can have a certain utilitarian function which the maintenance of order as
the result of shared understandings and meanings.
 CULTURAL CHANGE
- The belief that culture is symbolically coded and can thus be taught from one person to another
means that cultures, although bounded, can change.
- Cultures are both predisposed to change and resistant to it.
- Resistance can come from habit, religion, and the integration and interdependence of cultural
traits.
- Cultural change can have many causes, including: the environment, inventions, and contact with
other cultures.
- Several understandings of how cultures change come from Anthropology.
a) diffusion theory: it involves something moving from one culture to another, but not its meaning.
For example, the ankh symbol originated in Egyptian culture but has diffused to numerous
cultures. It's original meaning may have been lost, but it is now used by many practitioners of
New Age Religion as an arcane symbol of power or life forces.
b) Acculturation has different meanings, but in this context refers to “replacement” of the traits of
one culture with those of another, such as what happened with many Native American Indians as
Europeans took over their lands. Many Native Americans were acculturated into European
cultural norms, from religion to how to raise children.
c) assimilation and transculturation, both of which refer to adoption of a different culture by an
individual.
 WEEK 6

UNIT 6: SOCIALIZATION

Objective:
- This unit examines the relevance of theories of socialization in society and a deeper understanding of
socialization.
- It further dares to equip the learner with the forms and agents of socialization.
- Lastly, students will explore the general behavior of community on society and the effects of the
individual behavior.
Outcomes: at the end of the unit, students should:
- Understand and define the concept socialization.
- Identify the Agents of Socialization
- To explain and understand Deviant behavior
- To explain the Theories of deviance and collective behavior
 Definition
-Socialization is defined as a long life process in which people learn the attitudes, values and behavior
appropriate for members of a particular culture.
-Can also be defined as an interactive process through which people learn the basic skills, values,
beliefs and behavior patterns in life.
 Forces of socialization
-Sigmund Freud saw socialization as a life long struggle within a person’s mind.
This struggle involves three (3) forces:
Id: is a reservoir of innate biological drives aimed at obtaining physical pleasure.
Ego is the rational part of which mediates between the id and the Reality.
Superego is essentially a person’s conscience which embodies the moral standards of society.
 Types of Socialization
There are basically three (3) types of socialization. Namely: Primary, anticipatory and Adulthood.
-Primary Socialization takes place in childhood where the child is taught the language, self-control,
and basic skills.
-Anticipatory Socialization is when a person “rehearse” for future position, occupations and social
relationships.
-Adulthood Socialization takes place in adulthood as they meet new situations and challenges which
require new socialization.
 Elements of Socialization
-Socialization is a fundamental sociological concept, comprising a number of elements.
-While not every sociologist will agree which elements are the most important, or even how to define
some of the elements of socialization, the elements outlined below should help clarify what is meant
by socialization.
  Goals of Socialization
- Arnett, in presenting a new theoretical understanding of socialization (see below), outlined what
he believes to be the three goals of socialization:
1. Impulse control and the development of a conscience
2. Role preparation and performance, including occupational roles, gender roles, and
roles in institutions such as marriage and parenthood
3. The cultivation of sources of meaning, or what is important, valued, and to be lived for
 Socialization is relative
- socialization is culturally relative - people in different cultures are socialized differently.
- This distinction does not and should not inherently force an evaluative judgment.
- Socialization, because it is the adoption of culture, is going to be different in every culture.
- Socialization, as either process or an outcome, is not better or worse in any particular culture.
- It should also be noted that, while socialization is a key sociological process in the
development of individuals who can function in human society, not every aspect of human
behavior is learned.
- For instance, there is evidence that most children have innate empathy for individuals who are
willfully injured and consider it wrong.
- Thus, some aspects of human behavior that one might believe are learned, like empathy and
morals, may, in fact, be biologically determined.
- To what extent human behavior is biologically determined vs. learned is still an open question in
the study of human behavior.
 Distinction between Primary and Secondary Socialization
- Primary socialization takes place early in life, as a child and adolescent.
- Secondary socialization refers to the socialization that takes place throughout one's life, both as
a child and as one encounters new groups that require additional socialization.
- While there are scholars who argue that only one or the other of these occurs, most social
scientists tend to combine the two,
- They argue that the basic or core identity of the individual develops during primary
socialization, with more specific changes occurring later
- Secondary socialization provides response to the acquisition of new group memberships and
roles and differently structured social situations.
- The need for later life socialization may stem from the increasing complexity of society with its
corresponding increase in varied roles and responsibilities.
- Additionally, Mortimer and Simmons outline three specific ways these two parts of socialization
differ:
Content
- Socialization in childhood is thought to be concerned with the regulation of biological drives.
- In adolescence, socialization is concerned with the development of main values and the self-
image.
- In adulthood, socialization involves more overt and specific norms and behaviors, such as those
related to the work role as well as more superficial personality features.
Context
- In earlier periods, the socializee (the person being socialized) more clearly assumes the status of
learner within the context of the family of orientation, the school, or the peer group.
- Also, relationships in the earlier period are more likely to be affectively charged, i.e., highly
emotional..
- In adulthood, though the socializee takes the role of student at times, much socialization
occurs after the socializee has assumed full incumbency of the adult role.
- There is also a greater likelihood of more formal relationships due to situational contexts
(e.g., work environment), which moderates down the affective component.
Response
- The child and adolescent may be more easily malleable than the adult.
- Also, much adult socialization is self-initiated and voluntary; adults can leave or terminate
the process at any time.
  Socialization according to Arnett
a) Arnett's definition of socialization
- Defines it as the whole process by which an individual born with behavioral potentialities of
enormously wide range, is led to develop actual behavior which is confined with a much
narrower range; the range of what is customary and acceptable for him according to the
standards of his group.
- Arnett distinguishes then between broad and narrow socialization:
- Broad socialization is intended to promote independence, individualism, and self-expression;
- it is dubbed broad because this type of socialization has the potential of resulting in a broad
range of outcomes
- Narrow socialization is intended to promote obedience and conformity
- it is dubbed narrow because there is a narrow range of outcomes
- however, Arnett further argues that socialization can be broad or narrow within each of the
seven socializing forces he outlines (e.g., family, friends, etc.).
- This is because each force can be either broad or narrow, there is a wide variety of possible
broad/narrow socialization combinations. ave been well-documented
- Finally, Arnett notes two examples where his distinction is relevant.
- First, Arnett argues that there are often differences in socialization by gender.
- To this end Arnett argues that socialization tends to be narrower for women than for men.
- Arnett also argues that Japanese socialization is narrow as there is more pressure toward
conformity in that culture.
- Arnett argues that this may account for the lower crime rates in Japan.
The Importance of Socialization
- One of the most common methods used to illustrate the importance of socialization is to draw
upon the few unfortunate cases of children who were not socialized by adults
- while they were growing up.
- This is a case of "feral" children.
- Some feral children have been confined or abandoned by people (usually their own parents)
- In some cases, this child abandonment was due to the parents' rejection of a child's severe
intellectual or physical impairment.
- Feral children may have experienced severe child abuse or trauma before being abandoned or
running away.
- Others are alleged to have been brought up by animals; some are said to have lived in the wild on
their own.
- When completely brought up by non-human animals, the feral child exhibits behaviors (within
physical limits) almost entirely like those of the particular care-animal, such as its fear of or
indifference to humans.
- Feral children lack the basic social skills which are normally learned in the process of
socialization.
- For example, they may be unable to learn to use a toilet, have trouble learning to walk upright and
display a complete lack of interest in the human activity around them.
- They often seem mentally impaired and have almost insurmountable trouble of learning a
human language.
- The impaired ability to learn language after having been isolated for so many years is often
attributed to the existence of a critical period for language learning, and taken as evidence in
favor of the Critical Period Hypothesis.
- It is very difficult to socialize a child who became isolated at a very young age into a relatively
normal member of society and such individuals often need close care throughout their lives.
- There are, unfortunately, a number of examples of such children that h
 WEEK 8
Unit 8: Theoretical Understandings of Socialization
- Socialization, as a concept in social scientific research, has evolved over time.
- There have been quite a variety of definitions and theories of socialization.
- Some of these approaches are presented here

1. Symbolic Interactionism
- the self develops as a result of social interactions;
- socialization is highly dependent on the situations in which the actor finds him/herself;
- this approach also argues that socialization is a continuous, lifelong process
2. Role Theory
- socialization is seen as a process of acquisition of appropriate norms, attitudes, self-images,
values, and role behaviors that enable acceptance in the group and effective performance of
new roles;
- in this framework, socialization is seen as a conservative force, permitting the perpetuation of
the social organization in spite of the turn-over of individual members through time
3. Reinforcement Theory
- the self develops as a result of cognitive evaluations of costs and benefits;
- this understanding assumes that the socializee, in approaching new roles, is an independent and
active negotiator for advantages in relationships with role partners and membership groups
4. Internalization Theory
- socialization is a series of stages in which the individual learns to participate in various levels of
organization of society;
- this theory contends that the child internalizes a cognitive frame of reference for interpersonal
relations and a common system of expressive symbolism in addition to a moral conscience;
- this approach was advocated by Talcott Parsons
Other theories
Over-imitations
- Recent research suggests that human children are hard-wired to exactly imitate the roles of adults,
including actions that are not pragmatic. This is referred to as "overimitation" and, while seemingly
maladaptive from an evolutionary perspective, it is possible that this is one of the characteristics of
humans that facilitate the transmission of culture from generation to generation.
 Concept of Socialization According to LONG and HADDEN
 Definition:
-Socialization a medium of Joining a Group.
-In this sense, Long and Hadden reframed socialization as "the medium for transforming
newcomers into bona fide members of a group.
Critiques by Long and Hadden on earlier approaches
- Before discussing some of the specifics of this approach, it may be useful to outline some of the
critiques Long and Hadden present of earlier approaches to socialization.
1. Extension of socialization:
-According to Long and Hadden, many earlier approaches to socialization extended socialization to
every part of human social life.
-As a result, everyone becomes both a socializing agent (socializer) and a novice (socializee) in all
encounters with others.
-This conceptualization leaves socialization without a social home; it is all around but no place in
particular.
2. Inclusiveness of socialization
- socialization includes virtually everything, excludes almost nothing, and shifts with circumstance
and outcomes.
3. Lack of specificity
- Additionally, previous approaches to socialization lacked specificity about the nature of
socialization activity.
- Defining socialization by its outcomes made it unnecessary to stipulate the nature of the process
conceptually.
- In order to truly understand what is taking place it is necessary to go beyond just pointing to
socializing agents and specify what it is about those agents that is doing the socializing.
- As a result of these criticisms, Long and Hadden found themselves presented with a two-fold task:
 locate socialization and its social boundaries more precisely
 specify the distinctive properties which distinguish it from related phenomena
- To accomplish this, Long and Hadden developed a new understanding of socialization, "socialization
is the process of creating and incorporating new members of a group from a pool of newcomers,
carried out by members and their allies".
- Under this understanding, the principal agents of socialization are certified as practicing members of
the group to which novices are being socialized.
- It should be noted that certified here is only a shortened way of saying "a socially approved member
of the group."
- Thus, Long and Hadden's revised understanding of socialization sees it as both the process and
outcome of joining groups.
 Socialisation and Social Class
-Ellis, Lee, and Peterson, developing a research agenda begun by Melvin L. Kohn, explored
differences in how parents raise their children relative to their social class.
-Kohn found that lower class parents were more likely to emphasize conformity in their children
-middle-class parents were more likely to emphasize creativity and self-reliance.
-Ellis et. al. proposed and found that parents value conformity over self-reliance in children to the
extent that conformity superseded self-reliance as a criterion for success in their own endeavors.
 WEEK NINE

Unit 9: SOCIAL MOBILITY

- Objective: In this unit, students will explore social mobility and how individuals and society change
and grow from one level or stage to another
- Outcome: at the end of this unit, student should be able:

 To understand the concept social mobility

 To explain the causes and impacts of mobility

 To explain and lead positive growth of society

 SOCIAL MOBILITY
-Social mobility is the movement of people between or within social classes or strata. There are
different types of mobility:

1. Vertical mobility:

- this is the movement between social strata or classes.

- These types of mobility can either be upward or downwards depending on whether an individual
moves to a higher or lower position in a strata system.

- Promotion from a secretarial position to a managerial position is upward mobility while the
opposite is down wards mobility.

2. Horizontal mobility:

- this refers to the movement of people within a social class or stratum.

- When an individual moves from one job to another of equal social ranking, the individual is
experiencing horizontal mobility.

- A job transfer as an accountant from government to the NGOs as an accountant is horizontal

mobility.
3 Intergenerational mobility:
- these are status differences between generations in the same family.

- Here, the focus is on differences between the parents’ social class and the children’s current
position in the stratification system.
- The daughter of a farmer who becomes a doctor experiences intergenerational upward mobility.

- The son of a doctor who becomes a carpenter is experiencing intergenerational down ward
mobility.

 CAUSES OF UPWARD MOBILITY

Among the structural factors that affect upward mobility are:

a. changes in merchandising patterns

b. advances in technology

c. increases in the general level of education in the population.

 STRUCTURAL CAUSES OF DOWNWARD MOBILITY

-Although upward mobility is more common, there always are some people who move down the

social-class ladder.

a. Personal factors

- such as illness,

- Divorce/ Widowhood

- retirement can of course produce down ward mobility.

a. structural factors.

- changes in the technology

- Shifts in the economy

 WEEK 10
Unit 10: DEMOGRAPHY

Objectives: Students will understand the broadness of demography and its effect on sociological work.
Outcomes: at the end of this unit, student should be able to:
 To understand demography
 To understand the extent of democratic influence on social planning
 To apply demography to development of the community through delivery of social services

 Definition
- Demography, otherwise understood as population, basically refers to numbers of people in many
people’s opinion.
- Sociologically, demography has various related concepts that include factors influencing:
population growth, movement, and its results
 The concept of Social Planning
- Social planning was gradually realized in the 1960’s because prior to the 1960’s it was the
economic aspect.
- by 1960s the concept of social aspect was included.
- The realization of social aspects of development planning in the 1960’s led to immergence of a
special type or branch of planning activity known as social planning.
- The existence of social planning is reflected in various ways.
- For example, many national planning agencies have a separate section responsible for social
planning interdisciplinary teams frequently include a social planner and the point of reference for
project feasibility studies usually includes an assessment of the social impact of the project.
- However, although social planning is widely recognized as a specific kind of planning, the term
is used in various different ways and may cover the fairly wide range of activities.
 Activities Covered by Social Planning
- The term social planning may be used to cover any or all of the following activities:
- Planning social service- planning for social services can include issues of health, education,
housing and social welfare. These might be considered to be social services.
- Planning specifically to improve the quality of life of the particular section of the
population/the whole population e.g. marginalized groups/improve the quality of life of the
entire population.
- Assessing the way in which the social characteristics of the people concerned are likely to
affect the implementation of a particular programme policy or project e.g. if you want to
eliminate hunger, again you have to change the behavior of the people if the good you are
introducing is foreign or alien. People have to adjust to the programme being implemented.
- Assessing the likely future or actual impact of the policy, programme or project of the social
conditions. E.g. you have a policy document outlining how it can develop education, e.g. train
more teachers- this needs more revenue and it means increasing tax to raise revenue. This tax can
have impact on people and these are the limitations in meeting basic needs.
 WEEK ELEVEN
Unit 11: SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
 Definition
-Social stratification refers to society's categorization of its people into groups based on
socioeconomic factors like wealth, income, race, education, gender, occupation, and social status, or
derived power (social and political).
-As such, stratification is the relative social position of persons within a social group, category,
geographic region, or social unit.
 Social classes
In modern Western societies, social stratification is typically defined in terms of three social classes:
(i) the upper class,
(ii) the middle class
(iii) the lower class;
-in turn, each class can be subdivided into, e.g. the upper-stratum, the middle-stratum, and the lower
stratum
-Moreover, a social stratum can be formed upon the bases of kinship, clan, tribe, or caste, or all four.
 Categorization into social classes
-The categorization of people by social stratum occurs most clearly in complex state-based, polycentric,
or feudal societies, the latter being based upon socio-economic relations among classes of nobility and
classes of peasants.
-Historically, whether or not hunter-gatherer, tribal, and band societies can be defined as socially
stratified, or if social stratification otherwise began with agriculture and large-scale means of social
exchange, remains a debated matter in the social sciences.
-Determining the structures of social stratification arises from inequalities of status among persons,
therefore, the degree of social inequality determines a person's social stratum.
-Generally, the greater the social complexity of a society, the more social stratification exists, by way of
social differentiation.
 WEEK 10
Unit 10: SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
- Social institution can be defined or understood as agent of socialization. One of the most common
social institution is “family”.
 Definition of family
-Family is defined as a set of people by blood, marriage or some other agreed upon relationships or
adoptions, who share the primary responsibility of reproduction and of caring of the society
-Equally, we can define it as a group who are related by marriage, blood, adoptions and who live
together and share common resources.
 Types of Families
-There are different types of families, namely:
 Nuclear family consists of one or both parents and children.
 Family of orientation is the nuclear family into which a person is born.
 Family of procreation consists of the individual, his or her spouses, and their children.
 Extended family consists of three or more generation of a family sharing the same residence.
 Modified Extended family does not share the same household, but is especially found among middle
class families
  Types of Relationships
- There are three (3) types of relationships
- Primary relatives are the members of an individual’s family of procreation and orientation include
mother, father, sister, brother, spouse, daughter and son.
- Secondary relatives are the primary relatives of an individual’s primary relatives who include
grandparents, grandchildren, in-laws, aunts, uncles, nephews and nieces.
- Tertiary relatives are primary relatives of an individual’s secondary relatives like great grandparents,
great grandchildren, great aunts, great uncles and great cousins.
 Functions of the family
- The functions of the family are:
- Reproduction: for a society to maintain itself, it must replace dying members.
- The family contributes to human survival through its functions of reproduction.
- Protection: Human infants need constant care and economic security.
- In all cultures, the family assumes the ultimate responsibility for the Protection and up bringing of
Children.
- Socialization: Parents and other kin monitor a child’s behaviour and transmit the norms, values
and language of their culture to the child.
- Regulation of sexual behaviour: Sexual norms are subject to change both over time and across
cultures. However, whatever the time period or cultural values of a society.
- Standard of sexual behaviour are most clearly defined within the family circles.
- Affection and companionship: Ideally, the family provides members with warm and intimate
relationships, helping them to feel satisfied and secure.
- Provision of social status: We inherit a social position because of the family background and
reputation of our parents and siblings.
- The family represents the new born child with an ascribed status on race and ethnicity that helps to
determine his or her place within society stratification system.
  Other socializing agents

- Peer groups increasingly assumes the role of significant others.

- As children grow order, they begin to relate more and more with their peer groups. To win their

acceptance, they behave according to other standards.

- School Plays is a major role in socializing individuals. Class activities are planned for deliberate

purpose of teaching. Extra circular activities agent in the transmission of values.

- Mass Media is one of the most influential agents which include newspapers, television, radio,

internet etc. They reach large audiences with no personal contact between the individual’s sending

the information and those receiving it.

- State regulates the behavior of citizens through the laws enacted by parliament.
  Stages of Socialization
- There is a socially defined sequence of stages in human life from birth to death.
 Infanthood is the stage where the family takes an active role in molding the behavior of the child. At
this stage the family is very important to the socialization of the child.
 Childhood is the stage where the family no longer accounts for the socialization of the child. The
child is able to walk and interact with other people.
 Adolescence is the stage where friends of the child become very important. They play a pivotal or
major role in the molding of adolescent behavior.
 Adulthood socialization takes place in adult life. As individuals grow up, they meet new situations
and challenges which require new socialization.
 Occupational socialization happens in places of work. The process of assigning norms, values and
beliefs to new workers with those of the organization or occupation in which one is employed.
 Desocialisation may take place, it is the process whereby people are stripped off their values and self
conception acquired.
 Afterwards, resocialisation takes place. A total institution regulates all aspects of a camp, a mental
hospital or a convent.
  Importance of Socialisation
 Help people to behave according to the norms and values of society
 Teaches people about societal roles
 Help in transition of cultures from one generation to the other.
Kinship terminology
- Archaeologist Lewis Henry Morgan (1818–1881) performed the first survey of kinship
terminologies in use around the world
- he argued that kinship terminologies reflect different sets of distinctions. For example, most
kinship terminologies distinguish between sexes (the difference between a brother and a
sister) and between generations (the difference between a child and a parent).
- He also argued that kinship terminologies distinguish between relatives by blood and
marriage (although recently some anthropologists have argued that many societies define
kinship in terms other than "blood").
- Morgan made a distinction between kinship systems that use classificatory terminology and
those that use descriptive terminology.
- Morgan's distinction is widely misunderstood, even by contemporary anthropologists.
- Classificatory systems are generally and erroneously understood to be those that "class
together" with a single term relatives who actually do not have the same type of
relationship to ego
- What Morgan's terminology actually differentiates are those (classificatory) kinship systems that do
not distinguish lineal and collateral relationships and those (descriptive) kinship systems that do..
Morgan identified six basic patterns of kinship terminologies:
- Hawaiian: only distinguishes relatives based upon sex and generation.
- Sudanese: no two relatives share the same term.
- Eskimo: in addition to distinguishing relatives based upon sex and generation, also distinguishes
between lineal relatives and collateral relatives.
- Iroquois: in addition to sex and generation, also distinguishes between siblings of opposite sexes in
the parental generation.
- Crow: a matrilineal system with some features of an Iroquois system, but with a "skewing" feature in
which generation is "frozen" for some relatives.
- Omaha: like a Crow system but patrilineal.
  Western kinship
- Most Western societies employ Eskimo kinship terminology.
- This kinship terminology commonly occurs in societies based on conjugal (or nuclear) families, where
nuclear families have a degree of relative mobility.
- Members of the nuclear use descriptive kinship terms:
 Mother: a female parent
 Father: a male parent
 Son: a male child of the parent(s)
 Daughter: a female child of the parent(s)
 Brother: a male child of the same parent(s)
 Sister: a female child of the same parent(s)
 Grandfather: father of a father or mother
 Grandmother: mother of a mother or father
 Cousin: two people that share the same Grandparent(s)
Oedipal family model and fascism

- The model, common in the western societies, of the family triangle, husband-wife-children isolated
from the outside, is also called oedipal model of the family, and it is a form of patriarchal family.
- One of the most prominent of such studies is Anti-OEdipus by Deleuze and Guattari (1972). Michel
Foucault, in its renowned preface, remarked how the primary focus of this study is the fight against
contemporary fascism.
- In the family, they argue, the young develop in a perverse relationship, wherein they learn to love the
same person who beats and oppresses them.
- The family therefore constitutes the first cell of the fascist society, as they will carry this attitude of
love for oppressive figures in their adult life.
- Kindship and family forms have often been thought to impact the social relations in the society as a
whole, and therefore been described as the first cell or the building social unit of the structure of a
society
- The child grows according to the oedipal model, which is typical of the structure of capitalist
societies, and he becomes in turn owner of submissive children and protector of the woman.
- Some argue that the family institution conflicts with human nature and human primitive desires and
that one of its core functions is performing a suppression of instincts, a repression of desire
commencing with the earliest age of the child.
- Michel Foucault, in his systematic study of sexuality, argued that rather than being merely repressed,
the desires of the individual are efficiently mobilized and used, to control the individual, alter
interpersonal relationships and control the masses.
- Foucault believed organized religion, through moral prohibitions, and economic powers, through
advertising, make use of unconscious sex drives.
 WEEK ELEVEN

Unit 11: MARIAGE

 Definition
- Marriage is usually recognized by the state, a religious authority, or both. It is often viewed as a
contract.
- Marriage is defined as a socially acknowledged and publicly approved union of two or more
adults which include sexual economic rights.
- It can also be defined as a socially approved union of two individuals and when children are born
to the union, they become legitimate off springs of the two individuals which include mutual
rights and obligations.
 Modes of Mariage
 Religious Marriage is conducted by religious people and gives marriage certificates.
 Traditional Marriage is conducted by traditional people.
 Civic Marriage is conducted by government officials and gives marriage certificates.
 A Combination of the marriage above.
  Choices of marriage partners
- Endogamy: This is where marriage partners are selected from within one’s particular groups only
i.e. race.
- Exogamy: This is where a marriage partner is selected outside one’s particular group e.g. church.
Homogamy: This is where a marriage partner is selected who has certain traits to yours e.g.
personality.
- Hetorogamy: This is where a marriage partner is selected who have different traits to yours e.g.
height.
- Monogamy: This is marriage between one man and one woman.
- Polygamy: This is marriage with two or more partners.
- Polygyn: This is marriage where a man has two or more women partners.
- Polyandry: This is marriage where a woman has two or more men partners.
 Power to make decision
 Patriarchal
-This is where a man has more power to make decisions in marriage.
 Matriarchal:
-This is where a woman has more power to make decisions in marriage.
 Egalitarian:
-This is where both man and woman have power to make decisions in marriage.
 Matrilocal:
-This is where the newly married couple stays with the relatives of the woman.
 Neolocal: This is where a newly married couple stays in a neutral venue.
 Tracing of Lineage
-Patrilineal: This is where lineage is traced through the man
-Matrilineal: This is where lineage is traced through a woman
-Bilineal: This is where lineage is traced from both man and woman.
  Types of Laws involved in marriage
 Religious law: They follow the law of religion.
 Civic law: They follow the law of the state.
 Customary law: They follow the culture of a particular area.
 Common law: People declare marriage minus paying anything
 Alternatives to marriage
-Single parenthood: After divorce or loss of a partner, the remaining parent decides to remain single for
the rest of his or her life.
-Single hood: A man or woman decides to remain single for the rest of his or her life for different
reasons, e.g. not wanting to limit their sexual intimacy.
-Adoption: A man or woman decides not to marry but to adopt children. Rights are transferred from
biological to adoptive parents.
-Cohabitation: A male and female couple decide to live together without marrying. People associate
cohabitation with college campuses and sexual experimentation.
-Lesbian and Gays: Lesbianism is the situation where a woman marries another woman.
-Gayism is a situation where a man marries another man. In some countries this is legal.
  Marriage restrictions
- Marriage is an institution that is historically filled with restrictions. From age, to gender, to social
status.
- restrictions are placed on marriage by society for reasons of passing on healthy genes, to keep property
concentrated, or (in some historical cases) because of prejudice and fear.
1. Mariage age
- The minimum age at which a person is able to lawfully marry, and whether parental or other consents
are required, vary from country to country.
- In the UK the general age at which a person may marry is 18, but 16- or 17-year-olds may get married
with their parents' or guardians' consent.
- If they are unable to obtain this, they can gain consent from the courts, which may be granted by the
Magistrates' Courts, or the County or High Court family divisions.
2. Gender restrictions
- Legal, social, and religious restrictions apply in all countries on the genders of the couple.
- In response to changing social and political attitudes, some jurisdictions and religious denominations
now recognize marriages between people of the same sex.
- In some jurisdictions these are sometimes called "civil unions" or "domestic partnerships", while
some others explicitly prohibit same-sex marriages.
- In 1989, Denmark became the first country in the modern era to extend the rights and
responsibilities of marriage to same-sex couples.
- Since 2001, five countries have come to recognize same-sex marriages for civil purposes, namely
the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, Canada, and South Africa. Norway is on track to become the sixth
in 2009.
- To avoid the use of the term "marriage", some governments provide civil unions, which are open to
couples of the same sex.
- Civil unions (and registered/domestic partnerships) are currently recognized and accepted in
approximately 30 out of 193 countries worldwide and in some U.S. states.
- However, in countries where it has been adopted, applications for marriage licenses have far
exceeded governmental estimates of demand.
- Some jurisdictions, such as the nations of Israel, Aruba, and the Netherlands Antilles, as well as the
U.S. states of New Mexico, New York and Rhode Island, recognize same-sex marriages lawfully
entered into elsewhere, while not permitting them to be performed locally.
 State recognition
-In Saskatchewan Canada, a married person may "become the spouse of a person who already has a
spouse, so may a non-married person".
-Other than this rather bizarre legislative driven example in North America, polygamy is illegal in
North America.
-In many jurisdictions, a civil marriage may take place as part of the religious marriage ceremony,
although they are theoretically distinct.
-In most American states, a wedding may be officiated by a priest, minister, rabbi or other religious
authority, and in such a case the religious authority also acts as an agent of the state.
- A captain of a ship may also legally marry two people.
-In some countries, such as France, Spain, Germany, Turkey, Argentina, Japan and Russia, it is
necessary to be married by government authority separately from any religious ceremony, with the
state ceremony being the legally binding one.
-In those cases, the marriage is usually legalized before the ceremony.
-Some jurisdictions allow civil marriages in circumstances which are notably not allowed by
particular religions, such as same-sex marriages or civil unions. : They follow
- Marriage relationships may also be created by the operation of the law alone, as in common-law
marriage, sometimes called "marriage by habit and repute."
- This is a judicial recognition that two people who have been living as domestic partners are
subject to the rights and obligations of a legal marriage, even without formally marrying.
 International recognition
- Many countries give legal recognition to marriages performed in some other state under the
Hague Convention on Marriages (1978).
- For this to apply, both the country of marriage and the country where recognition is sought need
to be members of this convention.
- If the country of marriage is not a member of the Hague Convention on Marriages (1978), then
the marriage documents will need to be certified following the Apostille convention.
- This certification is usually performed in the country of marriage by the embassy of the country
whose recognition is sought.
- In many countries there is a requirement to give notice of an impending marriage to the
community so that objections to the marriage can be raised.
- This custom was in place as a mechanism to necessitate the consent of parents as well as the
wider community.
- While some countries, such as Australia, permit marriages to be held in private and at any location,

others, including England, require that the civil ceremony be conducted in a place specially

sanctioned by law (e.g., a church or register office), and be open to the public.

- An exception can be made in the case of marriage by special emergency license, which is normally

granted only when one of the parties is terminally ill.

- Rules about where and when persons can marry vary from place to place.

- Some regulations require that one of the parties reside in the locality of the registry office.
 WEEK TWELVE

UNIT 12: COMMUNITY and SOCIETY

- German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies distinguished between two types of human association:
Gemeinschaft (usually translated as "community") and Gesellschaft ("society" or "association").
 COMMUNITY
- Community is defined as a spatial or political unit of social organization that gives people a sense of
belonging, based on either Shared Residence in a particular place or a Common Identity.
- It can also be defined as an informally or formally organized secondary group where members are
united by a common place of Residence or a common subculture.
 Types of communities
- A number of ways to categorize types of community have been proposed; one such breakdown is:
1. Geographic communities: range from the local neighbourhood, suburb, village, town or city, region,
nation or even the planet as a whole. These refer to communities of location.
2. Communities of culture:
- range from the local clique, sub-culture, ethnic group, religious, multicultural or pluralistic
civilization, or the global community cultures of today.
- They may be included as communities of need or identity, such as disabled persons, or frail aged
people.
3. Community organizations:
range from informal family or kinship networks, to more formal incorporated associations, political
decision making structures, economic enterprises, or professional associations at a small, national or
international scale.
 Classification of communities
 By location
Possibly the most common usage of the word "community" indicates a large group living in close
proximity. Examples of local community include:
1. A municipality is an administrative local area generally composed of a clearly defined territory and
commonly referring to a town or village.
2. A neighborhood is a geographically localized community, often within a larger city or suburb.
3. A planned community is one that was designed from scratch and grew up more or less following the
plan.
- Several of the world's capital cities are planned cities, notably Washington, D.C., in the United States,
Canberra in Australia, and Brasília in Brazil.
 By Identity
-In some contexts, "community" indicates a group of people with a common identity other than
location.
1. A "professional community" is a group of people with the same or related occupations. These are
also sometimes known as communities of practice.
2 A virtual community is a group of people primarily or initially communicating or interacting with
each other by means of information technologies, typically over the Internet, rather than in person.
 By Overlaps
-Some communities share both location and other attributes.
-Members choose to live near each other because of one or more common interests.
1. A retirement community is designated and at least usually designed for retirees and seniors—often
restricted to those over a certain age, such as 56.
2. An intentional community is a deliberate residential community with a much higher degree
of social communication than other communities.
- The members of an intentional community typically hold a common social, political or
spiritual vision and share responsibilities and resources.
- Intentional communities include Amish villages, ashrams, cohousing, communes,
ecovillages, housing cooperatives, kibbutzim, and land trusts.
 Functions of the community
 Communities provide geographical identity.
 Communities provide cultural identity.
 Communities provide human resources
 Communities instill a sense of patriotism
 Communities enable provision of service
 Communities facilitate sharing of responsibilities.
 SOCIETY
-Society is defined as a group of people of mutually Independent people who have been organized in
such a way as to share common culture and feelings of unity.
-It can also be defined as large number of people who live in the same territory, are relatively
independent of people outside it, and participate in a common culture.
 Types of societies
-Sociologists classify societies by their subsistence strategy.
1. Preindustrial society: This is a type of society in which food production is carried out through the
use of human and animal labour.
2. Industrial society: This is a type of society in which the mechanized Production of goods is the
main economic activities.
3. Post Industrial society: This is the type of society in which the economic activities centres on the
production of information and the provision of services.
 Week thirteen

Unit 13: SOCIAL CHANGE

 Definition
-Social change is defined as the significant alteration over time in behavior patterns and culture
including norms and values.
-Social change is defined as the change that takes place in a society over time.
 Sources of Social Change
1. Values and beliefs
2. Technology: (Discoveries and Inventions).
3. Population: Change is the size of population may bring about changes in the culture.
4. Diffusion: People often borrow ideals, acts, beliefs and materials objects from other societies. The
process of spreading cultural traits from one society to another is called diffusion.
5. Physical environment
6. Wars and conquests
 Resistance to social change
 Ethnocentrism:
-People tend to believe that their own ideas and ways of doing things are best.
-This tenderly to view ones own culture or group as superiors called ethnocentrism.
 Culture Lag:
-A situation in which some aspects of culture changes less rapidly or lag behind than other aspects of
the same culture is called cultural Lag.
 Vested interest:
-The people who are satisfied with the way things are now, are bound to resist any effort to change the
situation .These people have an investment in the present.
 Theories of Social change
a. Evolutionary theories:
- hold that society is moving in a definite direction.
- Some holds that all society passes through the same successive stages of evolution inevitable reach
the same end. Other holds that change can change in several ways and does not inevitable lead in the
same direction.
b. Cyclical theories:
- hold that society which goes through phases of growth and decline .
- Society resembles an organism. Some hold that society is born grow and eventually die.
- Others focus on the history of the rise and fall of civilization.
- They have discovered social forces responsible for the rise and fall of societies. Proponents are
Spencer, Toynbee, and Sorokin
c. Functionalist theories:
- hold that society as being in a natural stage of equilibrium Society tends towards the stage of
stability or balance.
- Some compare society to the human body which biologically .
- Others holds that through change society remains stable.
- Society through a complex of beliefs, values and norms maintain social harmony.
d. Conflict theories:
- hold that conflict and tensions are basic to society .
- Some theories hold that society is held together domination of one group by another.
- Proponents are Marx, Simmel and Darendiri.
  SOCIAL PROBLEMS
 Definition
-Social problem is defined as an undesirable condition which affects a significant number of
people and people affected feel something should be done to correct the situation through the
collective actions .
-It can also be defined as any social situation which attracts the attention of a considerable
number of obverses within a society and appeals to them as calling for readjustment remedy by
social collective actions.
 Characteristics of Social Problems
 There should be an undesirable condition
 They affect a significant number of people
 People affected feel that something should be done to correct the situation
 Can be solved through collective social actions
  Approaches to social problems
- Approaches to the study of social problems are basically influenced by three myths namely.
1. Natural theory:
- This argues that social problems are natural and unavoidable.
- Therefore, will always have them .This may lead to having no total commitment in solving
them.
2. Evil is equal to evil:
- This argues that people who are facing problems have some from of evil in them.
- Therefore, society is flied with social problems because of evil individuals
3. Blame the victim:
- There is a tendency of blaming the victim affected by a particular problem without looking at
causes.
 WEEK FOURTEEN
Unit 14: DEVIANCE , DRUG ABUSE AND SUICIDE
 Deviance
-Deviance is defined as the behavior that violates standards of conduct or expectation of a group or
society.
-It can equally be understood as the behavior of individuals that break or violate the norms of society.
 Approaches of Deviance
1. Anomie Theory of Deviance: Deviance as an adaptation of society prescribed goals or of the means
of governing their attainment or both.
2. Control Theory: Conformity and deviance suggest that our connection to members of society leads
us to systematically confirm to society’s norms.
3. Labelling Theory: An approach to deviance that attempts to explain one certain people are viewed as
deviant while other engaging in the behavior are not
4. Biological Theory: Deviance is caused by abnormality in an individual Insanity in some people has
lead to deviant behavior.
5. Sub Cultural Theory: Deviance is a response to the frustrations which lower class experience
because they not develop their own values.
 Social functions of deviance

-Unifying the Group: It serves to draw the line between conforming members of society and non
conforming members.
-Diffusing Tension: Minor acts of deviance serves as safety valve, allowing individuals to diffuse
tension and distributing smooth running of society.
-Provide jobs: Being deviant calls for people to dispense justice. These include the police officers,
judges, lawyers and prison warders.
-Clarifying Norms: Members of society are reminded of the norms of society when people are caught
.This sets the boundaries for .acceptable behavior.
  DRUG ABUSE
- A drug is defined as either a natural or synthetic chemical substance which one introduces into the
body which changes the metabolic functions of the body and its organs.
- It can also be understood as a substance used in medicine or substance that one takes for pleasure or
excitement especially causing addiction.
 Types of drugs
- Natural drugs: Natural drugs are found in certain plants e.g. caffeine and nicotine.
- Synthetic drugs: Synthetic drugs are those produced in laboratory e.g morphine and mandrax.
 Categories of drugs
- Drugs fall under three 3 categories namely:
 Legal drugs
 Over the counter drugs
 Controlled or illicit drugs
 Classification of drugs
 Depressants:
-These are drugs that slow down the action of the central nervous system, thereby slowing
down the body processes e.g. alcohol and valium.
 Stimulants:
-These are drugs that stimulate the central nervous system thereby speeding up the body
processes e.g. caffeine and cola.
 Narcotics:
-These are the drugs that dull the sense and relieve pain by depressing the Cerebral Cortex
which also affects the body’s mood regulation e.g. morphine and codeine.
 Hallucigens:
-Theses are drugs that distort the way the brain translates impulse from sensory organs
producing perception change e.g. ecstasy and mescaline Cannabis;
 Predatory Drugs:
 These drugs are used to facilitate sexual assault by rendering the victim incapable of resisting
sexual assault by rendering the victim incapable of resisting sexual assault e.g. rohypho and
kesamin.
 Causes of drug abuse Peer pressure:
So much has been written and said about drugs that many people are attempted to experience them.
-Curiosity: So much has been written and said about drugs that many people are attempted to
experience them.
-Ignorance: This refers to not having adequate information about drugs and their side effects
when taken.
-Alienation: An individual feeling isolated may join a group which takes drugs.
-Unemployment: Students find it difficult to find employment after school or training and tend
to resort to drug abuse.
-Problems: Wanting to escape from psychological, emotional or financial problems has led
people to become addicted to drugs.
 Signs and symptoms of drug abuse
- Objects that may indicate drug abuse
 Small plastic bottles with – straws
 Syringes and needles
 Butane gas containers
 Cigarette papers and lighters
- Behavior at school and work
 Poor performance at work and school
 Absenteeism in actives
 Lack of interest in activities
 Extreme activity or passiveness
- Social behavior
 Change in personality and behavior
 Temper flare ups and hostility
 Frequent borrowing of money
 Un explained presence in old places e.g store areas
 Lack of appetite or to much appetite
 Shabbiness instead of former tidiness
 Treatment
 Stabilising of family and wok relationships
 Consistent strict actions against abuse
 Establishment of intimate grouping
 Religions defense against drug abuse
 Counseling and rehabilitation services
 Safety should be recommended by social welfare officers
 Management
 Stopping the selling and buying of drugs
 Fining and imprisonment of drug trafficking
 Offering counseling
 Concept of Urbanization
Definition:
-defined as the concentration of people in the urban areas due to economic activities taking place.
-Also defined as the process in which people service and opportunities are concentrated in a limited
geographical area.
 Push factors
-These are elements which push people move from one rural area to urban areas namely
 General increase in educational levels in rural areas
 Lack of employment opportunities in rural areas
 Structural adjustment programme (SAP) has destroyed rural industries
 Lack of provision of social service
 Less economic activities taking place in rural areas
 Urban bias in development strategies
 Not technological sophistication metropolitan growth
 Pull factors
These are elements which attracts people to move from rural areas to urban areas namely: 81
 Availability of employment opportunities in town and cities
 More development activities taking place urban areas
 Social amenities or service in urban areas
 There is a lot of economic activities happening in urban areas
 Technological advancement taking place in urban areas
 Urban areas have industries which need skilled labour
 Structural Adjustments Programme
-SAP is an approach to managing the economy based on model guided principles of new liberal
-capitalism which include:
 Uncontrolled free market
 Primacy of private control of capital
 Minimal role of the state
- In the early 1990’s Zambia adopted the fast track approach to implementing SAP reform,
progress has made in
 Macroeconomic stability
 Inflation brought under control
 Exchange rate determined by the market
 Prices are regulated by the market
 Removal of all subsides
 Government deficit had been eliminated
- Although this has been favorable to the stability of the economy , it has had detrimental
effects on the general standards of living in terms of:
 Social costs of SAP in urban areas has been enormous
 Majority of the population now live poverty and no empowerment in employment
 Resources available in dealing with of poverty , employment and income
 Urban consumers have been especially venerable in deteriorating of trade .
Ways of bringing up balance development
 Deliberate investing in rural areas
 Give concessions to rural investment
 Development of infrastructure
 Govt adopt a mixed kind of economy
 Revamp rural industries
 Adopt integral and sustainable approach to development
 Sharing national income equally
 Week 15
Unit 15: GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
 Definitions
-Gender is defined as the behavioural and psychological traits considered appropriate for male and
females
-Development is defined as qualitative and quantitative transformation from lower level to higher level.
 Gender roles
 Expectations regarding the proper behavior, altitudes and activities of a male or female
 Socially and culturally determined
 Change with time and can be performed by either male or female
 Child care assigned to female while economic and physical support by male.
 Sex roles
 Duties which people perform because of being male or female
 Biologically determined
 Do not change, and are the same in all cultures.
 Breastfeeding is done by females while impregnating is done by male
 Stereo typing
 Stereo- typing is system of assigning district duties to be performed by female separate from
male.
 Cooking and sweeping has only been done by female while cutting poles has only to be done
by male
 Effects of stereotyping
 Does not promote individual potential and abilities
 Promotes Laziness on the sex
 Hinder women full participation
 Gender and education
 Gender expectations extend to school and career.
 Male are expected to be good at maths and science while females are expected to be good at art and
social sciences.
 More men pursue degree in science , engineering and businesses which leads to high paying
jobs .Women tend to concerted in social science and humanities which lead to lower paying careers
 Gender Policies
-Progress towards gender equalities is being made in almost every area of social life.
-Government has to put up gender policies in order to redress gender inequalities
-Gender policy are made with the aim of leveling the playing field for both female and male to
be involved in all areas of development
 Feminism
-Belief in the fight for the interest of women .
-The issue of equality in gender is cardinal to behavior and organization.
-Women movement United Nations in 19980’s raised general awareness of women issues
through the world.
-Conference on women 19-4 was held in Nairobi world conference in 1995 was held in buying
All conference emphasis that women become equal partners in development.
 Goal of women movement
-Promote women to become equal partners in development; areas of development are social,
economical and political.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Mortimer, Jeylan T. and Roberta G. Simmons. 1978. Adult Socialization. Annual Review of Sociology
4:421-54.
2. Goffman, Erving. 1961. Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other
Inmates.
3. Arnett, Jeffrey J. 1995. Broad and Narrow Socialization: The Family in the Context of a Cultural
Theory. Journal of Marriage and the Family
4. Decety, Jean, Kalina J. Michalska, and Yuko Akitsuki. 2008. Who caused the pain? An Investigation
of Empathy and Intentionality in Children. Neuropsychologia.
5. Goffman, Erving. 1961. Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other
Inmates.
6. Holland, David. 1970. Familization, Socialization, and the Universe of Meaning: An Extension of the
Interactional Approach to the Study of the Family. Journal of Marriage and the Family 32(3):415-27.
7. DeGregory, Lane (2008-08-04). "The Girl in the Window". St. Petersburg Times.
http://www.tampabay.com/features/humaninterest/article750838.ece. Retrieved 2008-08-04.
8. Giddens, 2001, sociology, London, Mac Hill. Inc.
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