Introduction to Psychology

Emotion and Motivation

What is Motivation?

The wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal

Motivation: Instinct Drives Behavior

William James (a) theorized that behavior was driven by a

number of instincts, which aid survival
An instinct is a species-specific pattern of behavior that is not
learned such as sucking (b)
Motivation: Drive Theory

Deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs that

direct behavior to meet the need and bring the system back to
homeostasis. We form habits.
• There is an optimal level of arousal that we all try to
maintain
• Yerkes-Dodson law
Self-efficacy and Social Motives

According to Bandura self-efficacy, people’s belief in their

capability to complete a task, will determine what we do and
the future goals that we set for ourselves

Social motives for behavior include needs for achievement,

affiliation, and intimacy
Motivation: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

In some versions of Maslow’s

hierarchy of needs the
cognitive and aesthetic needs
are also included between
esteem and self-actualization
Others include another tier at
the top of the pyramid for self-
transcendence
What Motivates Eating?

Hunger and eating are

regulated by a
complex interplay of
hunger and satiety
signals that are
integrated in the
brain.
What Motivates Eating? Metabolism and Set Point

A person’s metabolic rate is the amount of energy that is

expended in a given period of time, and there is tremendous
individual variability in our metabolic rates
The set-point theory asserts that each individual has an ideal
body weight, or set point, which is resistant to change
This set-point is genetically predetermined and efforts to move
our weight significantly from the set-point are resisted by
compensatory changes in energy intake and/or expenditure
Eating Disorders

• Anorexia nervosa is characterized by an individual

maintaining body weight that is well below average
through starvation and/or excessive exercise. People with
anorexia have distorted body image. Negative health
outcomes include: bone loss, heart failure, kidney failure,
amenorrhea, reduced function of the gonads, and in
extreme cases, death.
• Binge eating disorder is characterized by binge eating and
associated distress.
• Bulimia nervosa is characterized by binge eating followed
by purging. It is associated with kidney failure, heart
failure, tooth decay, anxiety, depression, and substance
abuse
Physiological Mechanisms of Sexual Behavior and Motivation

The medial preoptic area, an

area of the hypothalamus, is
involved in the ability to
engage in sexual behavior,
but it does not affect sexual
motivation. In contrast, the
amygdala and nucleus
accumbens are involved in
motivation for sexual
behavior, but they do not
affect the ability to engage in
it.
Sexual Behavior: Kinsey

Results of Kinsey’s research:

• Women are as interested and experienced in sex as men
• Both males and females masturbate without adverse health
consequences
• Homosexual acts are fairly common
• The Kinsey scale categorizes an individual’s sexual
orientation to same-sexed individuals (homosexual),
individuals of another sex (heterosexual), or both (bisexual)
Sexual Behavior: Masters and Johnson

This graph illustrates the different phases of the sexual response cycle as described by Masters
and Johnson.
Sexual Orientation

• Heterosexual emotional and erotic attractions to individuals

of another sex
• Homosexual: emotional and erotic attractions to same-sexed
individuals
• Bisexual: emotional and erotic attractions to both same-
sexed individuals and individuals of another sex
Data suggest that people are born with their sexual orientation
and it cannot be changed
Gender Identity

Gender identity refers to one’s sense of being male, female, or

another gender Generally, our gender identities correspond to our
chromosomal and phenotypic sex (sex assigned at birth), but this
is not always the case
Gender dysphoria is a diagnostic category in DSM-5 for
individuals who do not identify as the gender associated with their
sex assigned at birth. It must persist for 6 months and cause
distress
Gender-affirming hormone therapy is the use of hormones to
make one’s body look more like the gender one identifies with
In some cultures there are more than two gender categories
Components of Emotion

Emotion is a subjective state of being that we often describe as

our feelings.
The components of emotion are physiological arousal,
psychological appraisal, and subjective experiences.
Four Theories
of Emotion
Biology of Emotions: The Limbic System

Hypothalamus plays a role in the

activation of the sympathetic
nervous system
Thalamus serves as a sensory relay
center
Amygdala plays a role in processing
emotional information and sending
that information on to cortical
structures
The hippocampus integrates
emotional experience with cognition
Biology of Emotions: Inside the Amygdala

Basolateral complex
• is critical for classical
conditioning and attaching
emotional value to memory
Central nucleus
• involved in attention
• has connections with the
hypothalamus and various
brainstem areas to regulate the
autonomic nervous and
endocrine systems’ activity
Expressing and Recognizing Emotion

A cultural display rule is a culturally specific standard

governing the type and frequency of displays of emotions that
are acceptable
The facial feedback hypothesis asserts that facial expressions
are capable of influencing our emotions.
Body language is the expression of emotion in terms of body
position or movement
Universal Emotions and Facial Expressions

There are seven universal emotions associated with distinct

facial expressions
Practice Question

How does the facial feedback hypothesis support or challenge

the four theories of emotion?
Quick Review

• What are intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?

• What are basic theories of motivation, including concepts
such as instincts, drive reduction, and self-efficacy?
• What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
• How are hunger and eating regulated?
• What are the health consequences of anorexia and bulimia
nervosa?
• What biological mechanisms regulate sexual behavior and
motivation?
More Quick Review

• What are the contributions of Alfred Kinsey’s and William

Masters and Virginia Johnson’s research?
• What are the variations sexual orientation and gender
identity?
• Compare and contrast the Cannon-Bard, James-Lange,
Schachter-Singer two-factor, and other theories of emotion.
• What role do limbic structures play in emotional
processing?
• How are emotions recognized and expressed?