Elements of Scientific Research

Research
🠶 Re------------------Search

🠶 Re means: once more, afresh, anew

OR
🠶 back; return to a previous state
🠶 Search means: look thorough or go over thoroughly to look
something
OR
🠶 examine to find anything concealed
 Difference between Search and Research

Search Research
🠶 Search is: 🠶 Research is an ORGANIZED and
SYSTEMATIC way of FINDING
An act of find something, which has lost before
or missing. For example, I am searching for my ANSWERS to QUESTIONS
mobile
🠶 To explore through travel an unfamiliar area
🠶 To find food: The birds search for insects
🠶 To look for something for further study or
research (A zoologist searches for specific
species for research)
 Systematic
Because there is a definite set of procedures and steps which
need to be followed. There are certain things in the research
process which are always done in order to get the most accurate
results.
 Organized
There is a structure or method while doing research. It is a
planned procedure, not a spontaneous one. It is focused and
limited to a specific scope.
Finding Answers

🠶 It is the end of all research. Whether it is the answer to a

hypothesis or even a simple question, research is
successful when we find answers. Sometimes the answer
is no, but it is still an answer.
Questions

🠶 Questions are central to research. If there is no question,

then the answer is of no use. Research is focused on
relevant, useful, and important questions. Without a
question, research has no focus, drive, or purpose.
 What is Research?
🠶 A systematic means of problem solving (Tuckman 1978)
🠶 5 key characteristics:
1. Systematic
2. Logical
3. Empirical
4. Reductive
5. Replicable
Qualities of a Good Research
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured
with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance
with the well defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the
research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject
the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by
the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and
deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the
process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the
process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows
from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more
meaningful in the context of decision making.
Qualities of a Good Research

3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related

basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with
concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research
results.

4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research

results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a
sound basis for decisions.
What is research?
🠶 The systematic investigation of materials and sources in order to establish
facts and reach new conclusions.

Business Research
🠶 The application of the scientific method in searching for the truth about
business phenomena.
🠶 These activities include
▪ defining business opportunities and problems,
▪ generating and evaluating ideas,
▪ monitoring performance, and
▪ understanding the business process.
Objective of Research
🠶 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights
into it.
🠶 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,
situation or a group.
🠶 To determine the frequency with which something occurs.
🠶 To test a hypothesis.
Motivation In Research

🠶 The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more
of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e.,
concern over practical problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
Research and its Kinds

🠶 Quantitative vs. Qualitative

🠶 Descriptive vs. Analytical
🠶 Applied vs. Fundamental
🠶 Conceptual vs. Empirical
 Research and its kinds
Qualitative research
🠶 Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena
relating to or involving quality or kind.
🠶 Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioral sciences where the
aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behavior.
🠶 Through such research we can analyze the various factors which motivate people
to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular
thing.
🠶 It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is
relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one should seek
guidance from experimental psychologists.
🠶 Researchers are interested in gaining a rich and complex understanding of
people’s experience and not in obtaining information which can be generalized to
other larger groups.
🠶 Emphasizes on inductive reasoning which tends to move from the specific to the
general
🠶 referred to as a bottom-up approach.
Quantitative research

🠶 Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity

or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed
in terms of quantity.
🠶 It usually involves collecting and converting data into
numerical form so that statistical calculations can be made and
conclusions drawn.
🠶 Objectivity is very important in quantitative research.
🠶 The main emphasis of quantitative research is on deductive
reasoning which tends to move from the general to the
specific.
🠶 referred to as a top down approach.
Research and its kinds
Analytical Research
🠶 It includes the use of facts and information which is already available and analyze
these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
🠶 Reviews
🠶 A critical account of present understanding
🠶 A meta-analysis is a quantitative method of review
🠶 Historical Research
🠶 It which involves examining past events to draw conclusions and make predictions
about the future.
🠶 Accessing both primary (e.g. witnesses) or secondary (e.g. literature) sources to
document past events.
🠶 Philosophical Research
🠶 Organising existing evidence into a comprehensive theoretical model
Descriptive research
🠶 Descriptive research is used to describe characteristics of a
population or phenomenon being studied.
🠶 It includes surveys and fact-finding enquires of different kinds.
🠶 The purpose is the description of the state of affairs as it exists at
present.
🠶 Case Study
🠶 Accrual of detailed information from an individual
🠶 Survey
🠶 Cross-sectional: Status of a various groups at a given point in time
🠶 Longitudinal: Status of a given group at various points in time
🠶 Correlational: Relationships between variables
Applied research (Action Research): aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization.
The central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing
practical problem.

Fundamental research (Pure or Basic Research): is mainly concerned

with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory. Research
concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are
examples of fundamental research.
🠶 Conceptual Research: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract
idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop
new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.

🠶 Empirical Research: Empirical research relies on experience or observation

alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research,
coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation
or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of research.
🠶 Experimental research involves a direct assessment of how one variable
influences another
🠶 This allows the establishment of causality
🠶 All extraneous variables must be held constant while a single variable is
manipulated and the effect measured
 Research Design

Analytical Research Experimental Research

Descriptive Research Pre-designs

Reviews
Quasi-designs
Philosophical Case Study Survey

Historical True-designs
Cross-Sectional
Meta-Analyses
Longitudina
l Statistical-
Correlational designs
 Basic Terminologies
🠶 Concept: "A general idea referring to a behavior or characteristic of an individual,
group, or nation". For example, pain, patient care, coping, happiness, cleanliness,
dignity…etc.
🠶 Construct: "A concept specified in such a way that it is observable in the real world,
in order to facilitate testing of the idea". For example, position, in real world has
many different meanings in gynecology, in surgery and in management.
🠶 Variable: "A concept that is observable, measurable, and has a dimension that can
vary". For example, temperature is a variable that is observable, measurable, and
varies from high to low.
🠶 dependent variable: The "effect"; a response or behavior that is influenced by
the independent variable; sometimes called the criterion variable.
🠶 independent variable: The "cause" or the variable that is thought to influence the
dependent variable; in experimental research it is the variable that is
manipulated by the researcher.
🠶 Conceptual definition: "The definition or description of the study variables that is
drawn from the theoretical or conceptual framework".
🠶 Operational definition: "The definition or description of a study variable that
specifies how it will be observed and measured in the study.“
🠶 Assumption: "A statement of principles whose correctness has not been proven,
but is taken for granted on the basis of logical reasoning". "health is a priority for
all people“
🠶 Hypothesis: "A statement of predicted or expected relationships between the
variables of the research (dep. & indep. variables)". Hypothesis lead to empirical
studies that are seeking to confirm or disconfirm these predictions.
🠶 null hypothesis (Ho) A statistical hypothesis that predicts there is no
relationship between variables; the hypothesis that is subjected to statistical
analysis.
🠶 research hypothesis (H1) An alternative hypothesis to the statistical null
hypothesis; predicts the researcher's actual expectations about the outcome of a
study; also called scientific, substantive, and theoretical
🠶 Data: "Pieces of information that are collected as they pertain to the study".
🠶 Limitations: "Weaknesses in a research“ Uncontrolled extraneous variables,
that limit the generalizability of the findings.
🠶 Pilot study: "A small scale trial done in preparation of a major research".
🠶 Validity: “Degree or extent to which the tool or instrument measures what
it is supposed to measure". For example, a ruler measures the height not the
weight, while the scale measures the weight not the height.
🠶 Reliability: “Degree or extent of consistency or dependability with which a
study tool measures the variable over time, by different persons".
🠶 Population: “Group of people who are going to be studied, and to whom
should the study result apply". For example, bed-side nurses are the
population in a research studying the factors affecting the nurse's workload.
🠶 Sample: "Are those persons – in the population- from whom data will be actually
collected, and from whom generalizations about the population will be made".
🠶 accessible population: The group of people or objects that is available to the
researcher for a particular study.
🠶 Research design: The overall plan for gathering data in a research study.
🠶 Target population: The entire group of people or objects to which the researcher
wishes to generalize the findings of a study.
🠶 Abstract: (research abstracts). Brief summaries of research studies; generally
contain the purpose, methods, and major findings of the study.
 Types of Variables
🠶 Types of Variables
🠶 1. Dichotomous variable.
🠶 2. Attribute variable .
🠶 3. Active variables.
🠶 4. Dependent and independent variables .
🠶 5. Extraneous variable

🠶 1. Dichotomous variables. Variables that vary in only two values. For example:
Male vs. female. Alive vs. dead. Day vs. night.
🠶 2. Attribute variable: A pre-existing characteristic or attribute such as age,
education…etc. which the researcher simply observes and measures.
🠶 3. Active variables: Variables that do not pre-exist, so, the researcher has to create
them. For example: If the researcher is testing the effectiveness of 4 drugs on blood
pressure, here, all the four drugs are considered a variable that varies among
individuals. Where different ones are taking different drugs: a, b, c or d.
🠶 4. Dependent and independent variables:
🠶 Independent variable: “Variable that is believed to cause or influence the dependent
variable". Dependent variable: “Variable that is influenced by the independent variable".
🠶 5. Extraneous variable: Variable that confound the relationship between the
dependent and independent variables, thus it needs to be controlled. E.g., "air
pollution" is an extraneous variable interferes with studying the relationship between
smoking "independent variable" and lung cancer "dependent variable".
 Review the Available
Literature

Publish Formulate a
Findings Question
Research Process
Interpret Select an Appropriate
Findings Research Design

Collect Relevant
Data
 The Research Process
Examine a social
Asking the relationship, study the
Research relevant literature Formulating the
Question Hypotheses

Contribute
new evidence Develop a
to literature research
and begin THEORY design
again

Evaluating Collecting
Analyzing
the Data
Data
Hypotheses
Asking a Research Question
What is Empirical Research?

🠶 Research based on information that can be verified by using our

direct experience.

🠶 To answer research questions we cannot rely on reasoning,

speculation, moral judgment, or subjective preference

🠶 Empirical:
🠶 “Are women paid less than men for the same types of work?”

🠶 Not Empirical:
🠶 “Is cultural equality good for society?”
The Role of Theory

🠶 A theory is an explanation of the relationship between two or more

observable attributes of individuals or groups.

🠶 Social scientists use theory to attempt to establish a link between

what we observe (the data) and our understanding of why certain
phenomena are related to each other in a particular way.
Formulating the Hypotheses

🠶 Hypotheses:
🠶 Tentative answers to research questions (subject to
empirical verification)
🠶 A statement of a relationship between characteristics that
vary (variables)

🠶 Variable:
🠶 A property of people or objects that takes on two or more
values
🠶 Must include categories that are both exhaustive and
mutually exclusive
Units of Analysis
The level of social life on which social scientists focus (individuals,
groups). Examples:

🠶 Individual as unit of analysis:

🠶 What are your political views?
🠶 Family as unit of analysis:
🠶 Who does the housework?
🠶 Organization as unit of analysis:
🠶 What is the gender composition?
🠶 City as unit of analysis:
🠶 What was the crime rate last year?
Types of Variables

🠶 Dependent The variable to be explained (the “effect”).

🠶 Independent The variable expected to account for (the “cause” of)

the dependent variable.

IV 🡪 DV
Guidelines for Independent and Dependent
Variables
1. The dependent variable is always the property you are trying to
explain; it is always the object of the research.
2. The independent variable usually occurs earlier in time than the
dependent variables.
3. The independent variable is often seen as influencing, directly or
indirectly, the dependent variable.