1

Learning Objectives

At the end of this session you should be able to:

Describe the different types of carbohydrates and

how they are digested, absorbed and metabolized in
the body
Describe the functions of carbohydrates in the body
Enumerate the food sources of carbohydrates
List the RDAs of carbohydrates and health problems
related to over/under intake of carbohydrates
2
What are macronutrients?
Macronutrients are nutrients that provide calories or
energy.

Since “macro” means large, macronutrients are

nutrients needed in large amounts. There are three
macronutrients:
Carbohydrate
Protein
Fat

3
Macronutrients contribute to the energy
pool of the body

Carbohydrates Energy Pool Fats

(45-65%) of the body 20% - 35%
(100%)

Proteins
(10% - 35%)
4
Cont’…
While each of these macronutrients provides
calories, the amount of calories that each one
provides varies.
Carbohydrate provides 4 kilocalories per gram.
Protein provides 4 kilocalories per gram.
Fat provides 9 kilocalories per gram.

Besides carbohydrate, protein, and fat the only

other substance that provides calories is alcohol.
Alcohol provides 7 kilocalories per gram.
Alcohol, however, is not a macronutrient because
we do not need it for survival and it interferes with
the body’s growth, maintenance, and repair.
5
 Carbohydrates
•Carbohydrates are called carbohydrates because they
are essentially hydrates of carbon (i.e. they are
composed of carbon and water and have a composition
of (CH2O)n.

•The major nutritional role of carbohydrates is to

provide energy and digestible carbohydrates provide 4
kilocalories per gram.
•No single carbohydrate is essential, but
carbohydrates do participate in many required
functions in the body.
6
 Starch and glycogen are two common
carbohydrates.

 Both are macromolecules with molecular weights in

the hundreds of thousands.

 Both are polymers (hence polysaccharides"); that

is, each is built from repeating units, monomers, much
as a chain is built from its links.

 The monomers of both starch and glycogen are the

same: units of the sugar glucose.

7
8
 Simple sugars
Monosaccharides

Three common sugars share the same molecular formula:

C6H12O6. Because of their six carbon atoms, each is a hexose.

They are:

1. Glucose - "blood sugar", the immediate and major source of

energy for cellular respiration.
•Also called as dextrose or grape sugar.
•It is the end product of digestion of starch, sucrose, maltose
and lactose.
•Found in fruits, vegetables, honey, corn syrup and molasses
•After meal glucose is converted to glycogen and excess is
converted to triacyl glycerol and stored. 9
2. Galactose - a sugar in milk (and yogurt),
•It is not found free in nature
•Produced in the body during digestion of lactose
•Also called as milk sugar
•During lactation glucose is converted to galactose so that
milk can be produced.

3. Fructose - a sugar found in fruits and honey.

•It is the sweetest of all sugars and also known as levulose or
fruit sugars.
•It is produced during digestion of sucrose and is found in
nectar of flowers, honey and molasses.
10
Although all three share the same molecular formula (C 6H12O6), the
arrangement of atoms differs in each case.

Substances such as these three, which have identical molecular

formulas but different structural formulas, are known as structural
isomers.

Glucose, galactose, and fructose are "single" sugars or

monosaccharides.

Two monosaccharides can be linked together to form a "double" sugar

or disaccharide
11
Disaccharides

Three common disaccharides:

All sugars are very soluble in water because of their

many hydroxyl groups.

Although not as concentrated a fuel as fats, sugars

are the most important source of energy for many
cells.

12
1. Sucrose — common table sugar = glucose + fructose
• Is made up of one glucose unit and one fructose unit.
• Found in molasses, sorghum and corn syrups
• Also called as table sugar and used at home daily.

2. Lactose — major sugar in milk = glucose + galactose

• Only found in milk
• When hydrolyzed yields galactose and glucose.

3. Maltose — product of starch digestion = glucose + glucose

• Has two glucose units.
• Maltose(malt sugar) is found in sprouts and sweetening
agents
• Is formed in the body as an intermediate product of starch
digestion.
• Is found in beer, infant formulas and malted breakfast cereals
13
Sugar alcohols:

Not found free in nature

Produced as intermediate products during
metabolism of carbohydrates or commercially
prepared.
Sorbitol, mannitol and xylitol
Used as sweetening agent
Absorbed more slow and so no stimulation of
insulin. Therefore, no increase in blood glucose
No tooth decay – not used by dental flora

14
Complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides)

Oligosaccharides
Polysaccharides
Starch
Glycogen
Dietary fiber =Nonstarch polysaccharide (cellulose,
hemicelluloses, pectins, gums, and mucilages as well as the
nonpolysaccharides lignins, cutins, and tannins).
o Complex CHO that contain as many as 60000 CHO
molecules.
o Starch, glycogen and cellulose are important in nutrition.

15
Starch
Major storage
carbohydrate in higher
plants. Occur in two forms:
Amylose – long straight
glucose chains (1-4)
Amylopectin –
branched every 24-30 glc
residues ( 1-6)
Provides 80% of dietary
calories in humans
worldwide
16
Starch…..

- Most abundant CHO throughout the world in

mans diet
- Roots, seeds and tubers contain starch.
Corn, millet, rice, rye, wheat, dried peas and
beans also contain starch.
- End product of starch digestion is glucose and
partial breakdown gives dextrin that can be
formed during digestion and preparation.
- Dextrin is formed as an intermediary molecule
during the breakdown of starch molecule.

17
 Glycogen
 Major storage
carbohydrate in G
animals G
G G
G
G
 Long straight glucose G G
G
chains (
( 1-4) G
G
G G  1-6 link
 Branched every 4-8 glc G
G
 1-4 link G
residues (
( 1-6) G
G
 More branched than G
starch
 Easily mobilized

18
•Polysaccharide found in animals
•After slaughter glycogen is hydrolysed within few
hours- therefore not the commonest CHO we get
from food.
•It is a reserve fuel that serves between meals and
fasts and overnight.
•Has thousands of glucose units and highly
branched structure.
•350 Gms stored in body-2/3 is in muscle for energy
and 1/3 is in liver.

19
CELLULOSE

•Comprises of 50% or more of all carbon found

in vegetation.

•Structural constituent of plant cell wall.

•Humans do not have the enzymes to digest

cellulose.

•Also called dietary fiber or roughage.

20
DIGESTION OF CHO
Begins in the mouth by salivary amylase
Starch breaks down to Dextrin
Small intestine- pancreatic bicarbonate raises the pH to
optimal level
Pancreatic Amylase hydrolyses maltose, maltotriose and
small oligosaccharides
Brush border of intestine have enzymes which break
carbohydrates
Non starch polysaccharides , oligosaccharides escape
digestion by enzymes in the small intestines and get
fermented by an aerobic bacteria in the colon

21
22
23
Carbohydrate digestion
a. Digesion of starch and disacharaides
-Chem ical Starch, Lacto se
salivary Am ylase De xtrin, Lactase Sucro se
Mouth and
(Ptyalin) &
sm all
Pancreatic
intestine Sucrase
am ylase Gluco se
 -Mechanical;- + Gluco se
biting actio n o f +
Galacto se
the tee th Fructo se
From the sm all
Maltose intestine
Maltase

Gluco se + Gluco se
Absorbed by simple
diffusion

Absorbed by active transport

mechanism coupled with sodium

24
b. Digestion of oligosaccharides, resistant starch and non-starch
polysaccharides
O ligosaccharide s (e g. Raffinose , Stachyo se)
and non-starch po lysaccharide s resistant
starch

Escape digestion in the

upper gut (small intestine

They get fermented in the

colon by anaerobic bacteria

Production of
gases likes co2, Production of
methane and short chain fatty Increased faecal Biomass
hydrogen acids (SCFA) resulting in increased
sulphide  Acetate peristalsis
 Propionate
 Butyrate

25
Oligosaccharides and non starch polysaccharides
prevent cancer and other degenerative diseases
by

•Preventing secondary bile acid circulation

•Decreasing intestinal transit time.

•Decreasing of absorption of fats and sugars

•Prevent constipation and other G.I Disorders by

increasing peristalsis making stool bulk

26
ABSORPTION
All carbohydrates are absorbed as
monosaccharides at the small intestine

Galactose and glucose pass through microvilli

into the blood stream by active transport.

Fructose is absorbed by diffusion

27
 Monosaccharides, the end products of carbohydrate digestion, enter
the capillaries of the intestinal villi.

In the liver,
galactose and
fructose are
converted to
glucose.
Small intestine

Monosaccharides travel to the

liver via the portal vein.

Stepped Art
28
Fig. 4-11, p. 110
Carbohydrate absorption

Hexose transporter

apical basolateral
29
 Carbohydrate malabsorption
 Lactose intolerance
(hypolactasia),
 Decline lactase with age
 Lactose fermented in LI –
 Gas and volatile FA
 Water retention –
diarrhea/bloating
 Not all populations
 1-4 linkage  Northern European – low
incidence
Lactose intolerance  Asian/African Americans – High
•Inherited or acquired defect due to inadequate secretion of lactase
•Undigested lactose produces abdominal pain, diarrhea, and flatulence
•Intolerance in new born- Soy milk substituted in place of breast milk
30
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM:
Carbohydrates and fats are main source of
energy(ATP).
Glucose is the principle sugar used by cells especially
the brain’s only source of nutrition.
It is obtained from digestion of food, dietary fructose
and galactose and liver glycogen.
Once absorbed CHO have three fates depending up on
the bodies energy balance:
1.Utilized either anaerobically (glycolysis) or aerobically
(Krebs cycle) to produce energy in the form of ATP.
2.Stored in the form of glycogen in the liver and muscle.
3.Stored in adipose tissue in the form of fat if the body is
plethoric of energy.
31

Carbohydrates
Serve as primary source of energy in the cell
Central to all metabolic processes
Glucose
Cytosol - anaerobic

Hexokinase

Pentose
Phosphate Glucose-6-P Glc-1- phosphate
Shunt

glycolysis
glycogen

Pyruvate
32
 cytosol Pyruvate

mitochondria
(aerobic) Aceytl CoA
FATTY ACIDS

Krebs Reducing
cycle equivalents
AMINO
ACIDS

Oxidative
Phosphorylation
(ATP)

33
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES:
Energy supply:
To meet immediate energy needs as glucose
The CNS is entirely dependent on glucose for energy.

Protein sparing action:

When CHO and fat content of diet is low more protein is
used for energy at expense of tissue building and
maintenance(weight reduction)

Helping the body use fat effectively:

Prevents the occurrence of ketosis due to mobilization of
lipids.

34
 Lactose enhances calcium absorption:
As component of body substances and compounds
as heparin, nervous tissue, ribose and component in the
liver that destroys toxins.

Encouraging the growth of useful bacteria:

Fructose oligosaccharides selectively promote the growth of

important bacteria like lactobacillus and bifido bacteria.
Probiotic:bacteria that benefit the host by acting upon the
food
Prebiotic:Food stuffs that selectively stimulate the growth
of essential bacteria ex. Fructose, oligosaccharides.

35
Promoting normal functioning of the lower intestinal
tract:

Dietary fiber promote peristalsis and normal movement of the

food and waste products along the GI tract and prevent
occurrence of diseases.

Improving the palatability of food and drink:

Sucrose is used as sweetening agent and added to foods like

biscuits, soft drink, coffee, tea etc.

Texturing and preservatives:

Starch and soluble fiber are used in food industry to improve

texture
36
FOOD SOURCE OF CARBOHYDRATES:

FREE SUGARS: Syrups, cereal grains, dried fruits,

pasta, candies, pastries and breads and fruits like banana
and sweet potato.(high CHO density)
Oligosaccharides(medium CHO density): garlic,
onions, legumes, fruits and molasses.
Polysaccharides: fruits, vegetables, cereals and
legumes, whole grain cereals.

high carbohydrate sources: bread, cereals, rice,

pasta, vegetables
Low sources-egg, fish, poultry, cheese, meat, milk,
animal and vegetable fats contain CHO.

37
RECOMMENDED DAILY ALLOWANCE:

•Daily intake from food should not contribute more

than 50% of total daily requirement.
•To prevent ketosis 50 – 100 gms of CHO intake is
recommended.
•Excess CHO consumed can be converted to lipids
and get stored leading to obesity.
•Dental caries is the commonest problem for frequent
frank sugar consumers.
•Decreased sugar intake may lead to utilization of
body’s protein pool leading to cachexia.

38