THE VOYAGE

THROUGH THE LIFE

SPAN
CHAPTER 8
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lesson, the student must able to:

 Explain prenatal development and the role that sex hormones play
 Explain the physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional
development of adolescents
 Explain the features of emerging adulthood
 Explain the physical, cognitive, moral, social emotional
development of adults.
Prenatal development and the role that sex
hormones play.

The fetal stage lasts from the beginning of the third

month until birth. By the end of the third month, the
major organ systems and the fingers and toes have
formed.
In the middle of the fourth month, the mother
usually detects the first fetal movements.
Prenatal development and the role that sex
hormones play.

By the end of the sixth month, the fetus moves its limbs
so vigorously that mothers often feel that they are kicked. The
fetus opens and shuts its eyes, sucks its thumb, alternates
between periods of being awake and sleeping, and responds to
light. It also turns somersaults, which can be perceived by the
mother.
Prenatal development and the role that sex
hormones play.

During the three months prior to birth, the organ systems

of the fetus continue to mature. The heart and lungs become
increasingly capable of sustaining independent life. The fetus
gains about 5 ½ pounds and doubles in length. Newborns boys
average about 7 ½ pounds and newborn girls about 7 pounds.
 Zygote

A fertilized ovum (egg cell)

 Germinal stage

The first stage of prenatal development,

during which the dividing mass of cells
has not become implanted in the uterine
wall.
 Amniotic Sac

A sac within the uterus that contains

the embryo or fetus.
 Placenta

A membrane that permits the exchange of nutrients

and waste products between the mother and her
developing child but does not allow the maternal and
fetal bloodstream to mix.
 Umbilical cord

A tube between the mother and her

developing child through which nutrients
and waste products are conducted.
 physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional
development of children.
Childhood begins with birth. During infancy the first
two years of childhood dramatic gains in height and
weight continue. Babies usually double their birth weight
in about five months and triple it by their first birthday.
Their height increases about 10 inches in the first year.
Children grow another four to six inches during the
second year and gain some four to seven pounds. After
that, they gain about two to three inches a year until they
reach the adolescent growth spurt.
 physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional
development of children.
Other aspects of physical development in childhood
include reflexes and perpetual development. Theories in
cognitive development include Piaget’s stage theory,
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, and Kohlberg’s
theory of moral development. Erikson’s theory of
psychosocial development and Ainsworth ‘s
attachment studies explore critical aspects of social
and emotional development in childhood.
 Reflex

A simple unlearned response to a stimulus

 Rooting

The turning of an infant’s head toward a

touch, such as by the mother’s nipple.
 Fixation time

The amount of time spent looking at a

visual stimulus.
 COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT THEORY –
JEAN PIAGET
 Assimilation

According to Piaget, a hypothetical the

inclusion of a new event into an existing
schema.
 Assimilation

Example: A child sees a new type of dog

they’ve never seen before but recognizes it
as a dog.
The child who refers to a whale as a “fish”
 Schema

According to Piaget, the hypothetical mental

structure that permits the classification and
organization of new information.
 Accommodation

According to Piaget, the modification of

schemas so that information inconsistent with
existing schemas can be integrated or
understood.
 Accommodation

Example: An example of accommodation is

modifying your understand of the concept of a
car to include a specific type of vehicle once
you learn about trucks.
FOUR MAJOR STAGES
OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
 1. Sensorimotor stage

The first of Piaget’s stages of cognitive

development, characterized by coordination of
sensory information and motor activity, early
exploration of the environment.
 Object permanence

Recognition that objects removed from sight

still exits, as demonstrated in young children
by continued pursuit.
 2. Preoperational stage

The second of Piaget’s stages, characterized

by illogical use of words and symbols,
spotty logic, and egocentrism.
 Egocentrism

According to Piaget, the assumption that others

view the world as one does oneself.
Your child assumes that you see, hear, and feel the
same things they do.
 Conversation

According to Piaget, recognition that basic

properties of substances such as weight and mass
remain the same when superficial features
change.
 Objective responsibility

According to Piaget, the assignment of blame

according to the amount of damage done rather
than the motives of the actor.
 3. Concrete operational stage

Piaget’s third stage, characterized by logical

thought concerning tangible objects,
conversation, and subjective morality.
 3. Concrete operational stage

Example: The child can understand

principles of cause and effect, size and
distance.
 Decentration

Simultaneous focusing on more than one

dimension of a problem, so that flexible
reversible thought becomes possible.
 Subjective Moral Judgment

According to Piaget, moral judgment that is

based on the motives of the perpetrator
 4. Formal operational

Begins at approximately age twelve and lasts into

adulthood. As adolescents enter this stage, they gain
the ability to think in an abstract manner by
manipulating ideas in their head, without any
dependence on concrete manipulation
 4. Formal operational

Example: Children who can reason the answer in

their heads are using formal operational thinking.
Children have the ability in logical and methodical
way.
SOCIOCULTURAL
THEORY – LEV
VYGOTSKY’S
 Zone of Proximal Development

Vygotsky’s term for the situation in which a child

carries out tasks with the help of someone who is
more skilled, frequently an adult who represents the
culture in which the child develops.
 Scaffolding

Vygotsky’s term for temporary cognitive

structures or methods of solving problems that
help the child as he or she learns to function
independently
 THEORY OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT –
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG
 1. Preconventional level

According to Kohlberg, a period during which

moral judgments are based largely on
expectation of rewards or punishment.
 Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment)
Avoiding punishment

Good behavior is obedient and allows one to avoid

punishment

However, a child in stage 1 can decide that Heinz

should or not should steal the drug
 Stage 2 (Aiming at a reward)

Good behavior allows people to satisfy their needs

and those of others.

Heinz’s wife needs the drug; therefore, stealing it –

only way of obtaining it – is not wrong.
 2. Conventional level

According to Kohlberg, a period during which

moral judgments largely reflect social
conventions; a “law and order” approach to
morality. Standards of right and wrong.
 Stage 3 (Good-boy orientation)

Heinz’s should steal the the drug because that is

what a “good husband” would do. It is “natural” or
“normal” to try to help one’s wife. Or Heinz should
not steal the drug because “good people do not
steal”
 Stage 3 (Good-boy orientation)

Moral behavior is that which meets the needs

and expectations of others. Moral behavior is
what is “normal” – what the majority does.
 Stage 4 (Maintain social order)

Showing respect for authority and doing one’s

duty are valued highly.
 Stage 4 (Maintain social order)

Heinz must steal the drug; it would be his fault if

he let is wife die. He would pay the druggist
later, when he had the money.
 3. Postconvention level

According to Kohlberg, a period during which

moral judgments are derived from moral
principles and people look to themselves to set
moral standards.
 Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights)

The ideas of a social contract and individual right cause

people in the next stage to begin to account for the
differing values, opinions, and belief of other people.
Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but
members of the society should agree upon these standards.
 Stage 6 (Universal Principles)

Kohlerg’s final level of moral reasoning is based on

universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At
this stage, people follow these internalized principles
of justice, even if they conflict with law and rules.
ATTACHMENT – MARY
D. SALTER AINSWORTH
 Attachment

The enduring affectional tie that binds one

person to another.
 Attachment

(1) Attempts to maintain contact or nearness

(2) Shows of anxiety when separated. Babies and
children try to maintain contact with caregivers
to whom they are attached.
 THREE MAJOR TYPES OF
ATTACHMENT, INCLUDING
SECURE ATTACHMENT AND TWO
TYPES OF INSECURE
ATTACHMENT:
 SECURE ATTACHMENT

Securely attached infants mildly protest their

mother’s departure, seek interaction upon
reunion, and are readily comforted by her.
 AVOIDANT ATTACHMENT

Infants who show avoidant attachment are least

distressed by their mother’s departure. They play
by themselves without fuss and ignore their
mother when they return.
AMBIVALENT/RESISTANT ATTACHMENT

Infants with ambivalent/resistant attachment are the

most emotional. They show severe signs of distress when
their mother leaves and show ambivalence upon reunion
by alternately clinging to and pushing their mother away
when she returns
PHASES OF ATTACHMENT:
 Initial Preattachment

phase, which lasts from birth to about three months

and is characterized by indiscriminate attachment. That
is, they prefer being held or being with someone to
being alone, but they are genrally willing to be held by
unfamiliar people
 Attachment-in-the-making phase

Which occurs at about three or four months and

is characterized by preference for familiar
figures
 The clear-cut-attachment-phase

Which occurs at about six or seven months and

is characterized by intensified dependence on the
caregiver.
PARENTING STYLES:
 Authoritative parents

The parents of the most competent children rate high in all

four areas of behavior. Such authoritative parents are strict.
However, they temper their strictness with a desire to reason
with their children and with love and support. They expect
much, but they explain why and offer help.
 Authoritarian parents

Authoritarian parents have strict guidelines about what is

right and wrong, and they demand that their children follow
those guidelines. Both authoritative and authoritarian parents
adhere strict standards of conduct, but authoritative parents
explain their demands and are supportive,
 Authoritarian parents

Whereas authoritarian parents rely on force and

communicate poorly with their children. Authoritarian
parents do not respect their children points of view,
and they may be cold and rejecting.
 Permissive parents

Are generally easygoing with their children. As a

result, the children do pretty much what the
children want. Permissive parents are warm and
supportive, but poor at communicating.
 Uninvolved parents

Tend to leave their children on their own. They

make few demands and show little warmth or
encouragement.
 physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional
development of children.
Adolescence is bounded by the onset of puberty the
period during which the body becomes sexually mature
and the assumption of adult responsibilities. Except for
infancy, more changes occur during adolescence than
during any other time.
One of the most noticeable physical developments
of adolescence is a growth spurt that lasts two three
years and ends the gradual changes in height and weight
that characterized most of childhood. Within this sort span
of years, adolescents grow some 8 to 12.
 physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional
development of children.
According to Piaget, children undergo three stages
of cognitive development prior to adolescence:
sensorimotor, preoperational, and concrete operational.
The stage of formal operations is the final stage in
Piaget’s theory, and it represents cognitive maturity.
Formal operational thought generally begins at about
beginning of adolescence.
 physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional
development of children.

The major achievements of the stage of formal

operations involve classification, logical thought,
and the ability to hypothesize. Central features are
the ability to think about ideas as well as objects
and to group and classify ideas, such as symbols
and statements.
 physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional
development of children.

Kohlberg’s research around the levels of moral

reasoning found postconventional moral judgments
were absent until about age 16, when stage 5
reasoning is shown by about 20% of adolescents.
 physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional
development of children.

According to Erik Erikson’s eight stages of

psychosocial development, the fifth stage ego
identity versus role diffusion occurs in adolescence.
 Adolescence

The period of life bounded by puberty and the

assumption of adult responsibilities.
 Puberty

The period of physical development during

which sexual reproduction first becomes
possible.
 Secondary Sex Characteristics

Characteristics that distinguish the sexes, such a

distribution of body hair and depth of voice, but
that are not directly involved in reproduction.
 Menarche

The beginning of menstruation

 Imaginary audience

An aspect of adolescent egocentrism; the

belief that other people are as concerned
with our thoughts and behaviors as we are.
 Imaginary audience

Example: Sometimes when I feel like do

not look good or I am having bad hair day. I
feel like all eyes are on me.
 Imaginary audience

Example: Teen that is affected by imaginary

audience might be self-conscious and may
worry about what other people think of
them.
 Imaginary audience

They may change their clothes constantly

before leaving the house to make sure they
are presentable for everybody that is
watching them.
 Personal fable

Another aspect of adolescent egocentrism;

that belied that our feelings and ideas are
special and unique and that we are
invulnerable.
 Adolescent Egocentrism

A tendency to focus on oneself:

Personal Fable (I’m so unique)
Invincibility Fable (“Nothing bad can happen.”)
Imaginary audience (“Everyone is watching”)
 Ego identity

Erik Erikson’s term for a firm sense of who

one is and what one stands for.
 Role diffusion

Erikson’s term for lack of clarity in one’s

life roles (due to failure to develop ego
identity)
PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE–
ERIK ERIKSON
 Emerging Adulthood

In earlier days, adolescents made a transition directly into

adulthood. Now many of them in affluent nations spend time in
what some theorists consider a new period of development,
roughly spanning the ages to 18 to 25; emerging adulthood.
During this time, many young people attend college and
graduate school, sort out identity issues, and create meaningful
life plans.
 physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional
development adults.
A number of physical changes occur during the
later years. The reasons for aging, however, are not
yet completely understood. People can also affect
the pace of their aging by eating properly,
exercising, maintaining a positive outlook, and
finding and meeting challenges that are consistent
with their abilities, people are at the height of their
cognitive powers during early adulthood.
 physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional
development adults.
Cognitive development in adulthood has many
aspects creativity, memory functioning, and intelligence.
Changes in social and emotional development during
adulthood is characterized by the task of developing
abiding intimate relationships; middle adulthood
involves being productive and contributing to younger
generations; the challenge for late adulthood is to
maintain one’s sense of identity despite physical
education.
 Menopause

The cessation of menstruation

 Crystallized Intelligence

One’s lifetime of intellectual achievement,

as shown largely through vocabulary and
knowledge of world affairs.
 Crystallized Intelligence

Ability to use acquired knowledge

for problem solving
 Fluid Intelligence

Mental flexibility as shown in learning

rapidly to solve new kinds of problems.
 Fluid Intelligence

Ability to develop techniques for

solving problems
 Alzheimer’s disease

A progressive form of mental deterioration

characterized by loss of memory, language,
problem solving, and other cognitive
functions.
 Empty-nest syndrome

A sense of depression and loss of purpose

felt by some parents when the youngest
child leaves home.
 Sandwich generation

People in middle adulthood who are

responsible for meeting the needs of their
children yet also responsible for aging
parents.
 ACTIVITY: Write your answer on short bond paper.

1. Look at the collection of family photograph and you can

see the influence of genes in shared physical
characteristics, such as eye color and the shape of facial
features. Genes are also known as the factor in certain
illness, including heart disease and some concerns. But
when it comes into personality and behavior, the role
played by inheritance is matter rather than more difficult to
unravel.
 ACTIVITY:
2. HOW OLD ARE YOU?

There are many different concepts of age. Try answering the following
questions truthfully to see how much variation there is for you?

1. What is your chronological age (actual age)?

2. What is your biological age (based on your physical appearance)?
3. What is your subjective age (based on how old you feel inside)?
4. What is your functional age (determined by your lifestyle interests,
family life, status in society and so on)?
5. How old do you think other people believe you are?
 ACTIVITY:
TRY IT YOURSELF: Consider your Genetic Inheritance

What behavioral traits do you share as a family? Get together with other
family member to see whether there are similarities in your personalities and
behavior. Particularly revealing questions might include the following:

Do you share certain mind-sets as a family? For example, if your parents

never enjoyed going out, abroad or out of town, do you find that you tend to
get homesick when you’re a long way from home?
Do you share a similar degree of extension or introversion do you enjoy
talking to people you don’t know well or do you try to avoid it?
Are there any similarities in how many members of your family deal with
problems? Do they self-critical or depressed, or instead blame circumstances
and not take it personally?
 ACTIVITY:

Do you have similar interest? For example, if your mother

always followed fashion, do you find that you do too?

Are there any striking and seemingly inexplicable-

coincidence such as you and a sibling both attracted to a
person with the same features, personalities or
occupation.
“YOUTH COMES
BUT ONCE IN A
LIFETIME.”
― HENY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW
Thank you! 