Bones and Joints

Bone
 Bone is a specialized type of connective tissue. It has a unique
histological appearance, which enables it to carry out its numerous
functions:
 Haematopoiesis – the formation of blood cells from haematopoietic
stem cells found in the bone marrow.
 Lipid and mineral storage – bone is a reservoir holding adipose tissue
within the bone marrow and calcium within the hydroxyapatite crystals.

 Support – bones form the framework and shape of the body.

 Protection – especially the axial skeleton which surrounds the major
organs of the body.
 In this article, we shall look at the ultrastructure of bone – its
components, structure and development. We shall also examine how
Hydroxyapatite, also called hydroxylapatite, is a naturally
occurring mineral form of calcium apatite with the formula
Ca₅(PO₄)₃, but it is usually written Ca₁₀(PO₄)₆(OH)₂ to
denote that the crystal unit cell comprises two entities.
Components of Bone
Cellular Components

There are three types of cells in bone:

 Osteoblasts: Synthesise uncalcified/unmineralised
extracellular matrix called osteoid. This will later
become calcified/mineralised to form bone.
 Osteoblasts are cells with a single nucleus that
synthesize bone. However, in the process of bone
formation, osteoblasts function in groups of
connected cells. Individual cells cannot make bone. A
group of organized osteoblasts together with the
bone made by a unit of cells is usually called
the osteon.
Osteoblasts are specialized, terminally differentiated products
of mesenchymal stem cells. They synthesize dense,
crosslinked collagen and specialized proteins in much smaller
quantities, including osteocalcin and osteopontin, which compose
the organic matrix of bone.

In organized groups of connected cells, osteoblasts

produce hydroxylapatite that is deposited, in a highly regulated
manner, into the organic matrix forming a strong and
dense mineralized tissue - the mineralized matrix. The
mineralized skeleton is the main support for the bodies of air
breathing vertebrates. It is an important store of minerals for
physiological homeostasis including both acid-base
Osteocytes – As the osteoid mineralizes, the osteoblasts become
entombed between lamellae in lacunae where they mature into
osteocytes. They then monitor the minerals and proteins to
regulate bone mass.

An osteocyte, a star-shaped type of bone cell, is the most

commonly found cell in mature bone tissue, and can live as long as
the organism itself. The adult human body has about 42 billion of
them. Osteocytes do not divide and have an average half life of 25
years.

In mature bone, osteocytes and their processes reside inside

spaces called lacunae and canaliculi, respectively. Osteocytes are
simply osteoblasts trapped in the matrix that they secrete.
An osteoclast is a type of bone cell that breaks
down bone tissue. This function is critical in the
maintenance, repair, and remodelling of bones of
the vertebral skeleton. The osteoclast disassembles and
digests the composite of hydrated protein and mineral
at a molecular level by secreting acid and
a collagenase, a process known as bone resorption. This
process also helps regulate the level of blood calcium.
 Extracellular Matrix
 The extracellular matrix (ECM) refers to the
molecules that provide biochemical and structural
support to the cells.
 The ECM of bone is highly specialized. In addition
to collagen and the associated proteins usually
found in connective tissue, bone is impregnated
with mineral salts, in particular calcium
hydroxyapatite crystals. These crystals associate
with the collagen fibers, making bone hard and
strong. This matrix is organized into numerous
thin layers, known as lamellae.
 Structure of Bone
 Under the microscope, bone can be divided into two
types:
 Woven bone (primary bone) – Appears in embryonic
development and fracture repair, as it can be laid
down rapidly. It consists of osteoid (unmineralised
ECM), with the collagen fibres arranged randomly. It
is a temporary structure, soon replaced by mature
lamellar bone.
 Lamellar bone (secondary bone) – The bone of the
adult skeleton. It consists of highly organized sheets
of mineralized osteoid. This organized structure
makes it much stronger than woven bone. Lamella
bone itself can be divided into two types – compact
and spongy.
In both types of bone, the external surface is covered by a layer
of connective tissue, known as the periosteum. A similar layer,
the endosperm lines the cavities within bone (such as the
medullary canal, Volkmann’s canal and spongy bone spaces).

Lamellar bone can be divided into two types. The outer is known
as compact bone – this is dense and rigid. The inner layers of
bone are marked by many interconnecting cavities, and is
called spongy bone. Lamellar bone can be divided into two
types.
 Compact Bone
 Compact bone forms the outer ‘shell’ of bone. In this type of bone, the
lamellae are organised into concentric circles, which surround a
vertical Haversian canal (which transmits small neurovascular and
lymphatic vessels). This entire structure is called an osteon, and is the
functional unit of bone.
 The Haversian canals are connected by horizontal Volkmann’s
canals – these contain small vessels that anastomose (join together) the
arteries of the Haverisan canals. The Volkmann’s canals also transmit
blood vessels from the periosteum.
Osteocytes are located between the lamellae, within small cavities (known
as lacunae). The lacunae are interconnected by a series of interconnecting
tunnels, called canaliculi.
Spongy Bone
 Spongy bone makes up the interior of most bones, and is located deep
to the compact bone. It contains many large spaces – this gives it a
honeycombed appearance.
 The bony matrix consists of a 3D network of fine columns, which
crosslink to form irregular trabeculae. This produces a light, porous
bone, that is strong against multidirectional lines of force. The
lightness afforded to spongy bone is crucial in allowing the body to
move. If the only type of bone was compact, they would be too heavy
to mobilise.
 The spaces between trabeculae are often filled with bone
marrow. Yellow bone marrow contains adipocytes and red bone marrow
consists of haematopoietic stem cells.
 This type of bone does not contain any Volkmann’s or Haversian canals.
 Ossification and Remodelling
 Ossification is the process of producing new bone. It occurs via one of two
mechanisms:
 Endochondral ossification – Where hyaline cartilage is replaced by osteoblasts
secreting osteoid. The femur is an example of a bone that undergoes
endochondral ossification.
 Intramembranous ossification – Where mesenchymal (embryonic) tissue is
condensed into bone. This type of ossification forms flat bones such as
the temporal bone and the scapula.
 In both mechanisms, primary bone is initially produced. It is later replaced by
mature secondary bone.
 Remodelling
 Bone is a living tissue and as such constantly undergoes remodelling. This is the
process whereby mature bone tissue is reabsorbed, and new bone tissue is
formed. It is carried out by the cellular component of bone.
 Osteoclasts break down bone via a cutting cone. The nutrients are reabsorbed,
and osteoblasts lay down new osteoid. Remodelling occurs primarily at sites of
stress and damage, strengthening the areas affected.
 1. Joints
 A joint is defined as the point at which two or more bones articulate.
Not all joints move, and different classes of joint contain different
tissues. The structure and tissue makeup of a joint will define its
properties, including the mobility, strength and stability.

 Joints can be easily classified by the type of tissue present. Using this
method, we can split the joints of the body into fibrous,
cartilaginous and synovial joints.

 Joints can also be classified by whether they move a lot, a little, or not
at all. In this article, we’ll be going through the joints by tissue
classification; but we’ll also make mention of the mobility classification
to which they belong.
 Fibrous Joints

A fibrous joint is where the bones concerned are bound by tough, fibrous
tissue. Fibrous joints can be further sub classified into sutures,
gomphoses and Syndesmoses.
a. Sutures
 These are immovable joints (called a synarthrosis), only found between
the flat, plate-like bones of the skull.
 There is limited movement until about 20 years of age, after which
they become fixed. They are most important in birth, as at that stage
the joints are not fused, allowing deformation of the skull as it passes
through the birth canal.
b. Gomphoses
These are also immovable joints, and can be found where the teeth
articulate with their sockets in the maxillae (upper teeth) or the mandible
(lower teeth).The fibrous connection that binds the tooth and socket is
the periodontal ligament.
c. Syndesmoses
These are slightly movable joints (called
an amphiarthrosis). Their structure is comprised of bones held together
by an interosseous membrane (An interosseous membrane is a broad
and thin plane of fibrous tissue that separates many of the bones of the
body. It is an important component of many joints .e.g, Interosseous
membrane of forearm. They are key joints in providing strength along the
length of long bones, preventing them from separating.
The middle radio-ulnar and middle tibiofibular joint are examples of
syndesmosis joints.
 2. Cartilaginous

 In cartilaginous joints, the bones are attached

by fibrocartilage or hyaline cartilage. There are two main types – primary
cartilaginous and secondary cartilaginous joints.

 Cartilage is an excellent shock absorber, as it is essentially a thick gel. The pelvis

and spine are hugely important in this respect.

a. Synchondroses
 Also known as primary cartilaginous joints, they only involve hyaline
cartilage. The joints can be immovable (synarthroses) or slightly movable
(amphiarthroses).

 The joint between the diaphysis and epiphysis of a growing long bone is a
synchondrosis. This is interesting in that it is a temporary joint with no
movement, and can be thought of as a bone-cartilage-bone sandwich. On an X-
ray, cartilage is not visible; have a look at some growing bones, it looks like the
b. Symphyses
Also known as a secondary cartilaginous joint, it can
involve fibrocartilage or hyalinecartilage. These joints are slightly
movable (amphiarthroses), an example of a which is the pubic
symphysis.
  3. Synovial
A synovial joint is a joint filled with synovial fluid. These joints tend to be fully
moveable (known as diarthroses), and are the main type of joint found around the
body. They allow a huge range of movements, which are defined by the
arrangement of their surfaces and the supporting ligaments and muscles.
It is commonplace to classify synovial joints by their movement.
a. Hinge
Permits flexion and extension. Elbow joint is a notable example.
b. Saddle
Concave and convex joint surfaces unite at saddle joints, e.g. Metatarsophalangeal
joint (toes).
c. Plane
Permit gliding or sliding movements, e.g. Acromioclavicular joint (collarbone to
shoulder blade).
d. Pivot
Allows rotation; a round bony process fits into a bony ligamentous socket.
Examples include the atlantoaxial joint & proximal radio-ulnar joint (top of the
neck and elbow).
e. Condyloid

Permits flexion, extension, adduction, abduction and circumduction e.g.

Metacarpophalangeal joint (in the middle of your hand).

f. Ball & Socket

Permits movement in several axis; a rounded head fits into a concavity. An

example is the glenohumeral joint (shoulder).
 Saddle Joint

Metatarsophalangeal joint
(toes)
Plane Joint
Pivot Joint