Immunity

Komal Najam
PH.D SCHOLAR, Rph
Immunity
The ability of an organism to resist a particular
infection or toxin by the action of specific antibodies
or sensitized white blood cells.
Types of Immunity:
1. Specific (Acquired)
2. Non-specific (innate)
1. Nonspecific/innate Immunity: is the natural
resistances with which a person is born. It provides
resistances through several physical, chemical and
cellular approaches.
2. Specific/ acquired Immunity: is often sub-divided
into two major types depending on how the
immunity was introduced
a. Active immunity
b. Passive acquired immunity
a. Active immunity is induced in the host itself by
antigen and lasts much longer, sometimes lifelong.

b. Passive immunity is acquired through transfer of

antibodies or activated T-cells from an immune host, and
is short lived—usually lasting only a few months.

Note: Active and passive immunity both are further

divided into natural (produce after contact with disease)
and artificially induced immunity(produce after
vaccination).
INNATE -
IMMUNITY
 Innate immunity is resistance, not acquired through
contact with an antigen.
 It has no memory.
 The components of innate immunity recognize foreign
particles by detecting certain CARBOHYDRATES on the
surface of micro-organisms that are different from
human cells.
 It is non-specific.
SURFACE PROTECTION:

 Keratin Layer of intact skin.

 Lysozyme in tears and other secretions
(Degrades peptidoglycan in bacterial cell
wall).
 Fatty acid of the skin (Inhibit growth of
microbes).
 Respiratory Cilia (Mucous containing
trapped organisms).
 Normal flora of throat,colon and vagina
(Inhibits colonization by pathogens).
 Low pH of vagina and stomach (Inhibits
or kill pathogens).
SUB-SURFACE Protection:
 Phagocytic Leukocytes: Neutrophills and
Macrophages ( Ingest and Kill Bacteria)

 Natural Killer Cells (Kill viruses-Infected Cells)

 Proteins of the Complement System

(Lysis of Cells such as Bacteria)

 Dendritic Cells (To capture and represent

Antigens to T-Cells)
ACQUIRED-
IMMUNITY
 It is the resistance acquired after contact with an antigen.
 It has long term memory for specific antigen.
 It can be;
1. Active
2.Passive

 It consists of
1.Cell Mediated Immunity
2.Hummoral Immunity
ACTIVE IMMUNITY:
It is resistance induced after contact with foreign antigen.
A). Active Natural Immunization:
 This contact may consists of
1.Clinical Infections
2.Immunization with live or killed Infectious Agents or their antigens.
3.Exposure to microbial products

B). Active Artificial Immunization:

Active artificial immunization is a type of immunization is achieved by the
administration of vaccines or toxoids.
Egs:
 vaccines against measles, mumps, poliomyelitis, tuberculosis, smallpox, rubella, yellow fever,
rabies, typhoid, influenza, hepatitis B, etc.
 Toxoids are used to develop immunity against diseases like diphtheria, tetanus, cholera, etc..

ADVANTAGES:
• It is long term.
DISAVANTAGES:
• It has slow onset,especially the primary response.
 PASSIVE IMMUNITY:
 It is resistance based on ANTI-BODIES formed in another host.
a)Passive Natural Immunization:
 IgG passes from mother to fetus during pregnancy.
 I gA passes from mother to new born during breast feeding.
b)Passive Artificial Immunization:
Passive artificial immunization is developed by injecting previously prepared antibodies
using serum from humans or animals
 Administration of Anti-Body against diphtheria or Tetanus.

ADVANTAGES:
 Prompt availability of large amount of Anti-Bodies.
 also used as a prophylactic measure

DISADVANTAGES:
 Short life span of Ab.(natural)
 Possible Hypersensitivity reaction , if GLOBULINS from another species are used.
Antigen
An antigen is any substance which provokes a
specific immune response e.g. infectious agents
like bacteria and some viruses and also that
substances that stimulate the immune response
can b called antigen.
Immunoglobulins (antibodies)
Antibodies, are glycoprotein molecules produced by
plasma cells (white blood cells). They act as a critical
part of the immune response by specifically
recognizing and binding to particular antigens, such
as bacteria or viruses and aiding in their destruction.
Antibody
Groups of Immunoglobulins
1. IgM
2. IgG
3. IgA
4. IgD
5. IgE
1. IgM (heavy chain is mu μ)
It is a polymer joint by five identical Ig molecules
therefore called macroglobulin.
it is in low conc. In the blood which is 0.5-2mg/ml.
It is the main immunoglobulin on the B lymphocytes
and active in the early phase of immune response.
Can’t cross placenta
2. IgG (heavy chain is gamma γ)
It is a single molecule with two antigen binding site.
It is produced mainly in secondary response.
It is present in the blood in highest conc. Which is 8-
16 mg/ml.
• Crosses blood vessels
• Crosses placenta (passive immunity to fetus)
 3. IgA (heavy chain is alpha α)
Its function is unknown.
Its conc. In blood is 1.5-4 mg/ml.
It is predominant Ig in the secretion of eyes, nose,
mouth, bronchi and gut. It is a single molecule present
in serum.
Its function is to protect the mucous membrane from
foreign attack.
It is secreted in milk and it crosses placenta
4. IgD ( heavy chain is delta δ)
Its conc. in blood is very low.
Like IgM it is present on the surface of B
lymphocytes.
• B cell activation
• Can’t cross placenta
5. IgE (heavy chain is epsilon ε)
Consist of a single molecule similar to IgG and
IgA.
Conc. In the blood is low which is 20-500 ng/ml.
Its main activity is mediated by mast cells.
Histamine reactions and allergies
Antigen-Antibody Complexes:
When an antigen (Ag) binds with an antibody
(Ab), an Ag/Ab complex is formed.
This reaction is reversible in varying degree

The forces of attraction between Ag and Ab are

increased by a ‘Good fit’ antigen surface and
antibody binding site.
Consequences of Ag/Ab combination
1. Precipitation
2. Agglutination
3. Anti-toxic effect/Neutralization
4. enhancement
1. Precipitation:
A soluble antigen rendered insoluble by aggregation of
the Ag/Ab complexes into a lattice.

Antigen in solution + Antibody in solution =

precipitation
2. Agglutination:
Particulate antigen e.g. bacteria and red blood cells are
aggregated in the same way as in the precipitation
reaction and the process is called agglutination.
3. Anti-toxic Effect:
The Ag/Ab combination neutralizes the toxic activity

4. Enhancement of the non specific defense

mechanisms :
a) Phagocytic activity
b) Complement activation
The binding of antibodies to antigens to form antigen-
antibody complexes is the basis of several antigen
disposal mechanisms.
The classical complimentary pathway,
resulting in lysis of a target cell
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY OR SPECIFIC
IMMUNITY
Two types of acquired immunity develop in the body:
1. Cellular immunity
2. Humoral immunity.
Lymphocytes are responsible for the development
of these two types of immunity
lymphocytes
In fetus, lymphocytes develop from the bone marrow.
The two categories are:
1. T lymphocytes or T cells, which are responsible for
the development of cellular immunity
2. B lymphocytes or B cells, which are responsible for
humoral immunity.
T LYMPHOCYTES
T lymphocytes are processed in thymus. Thymus
secretes a hormone called thymosin, It accelerates the
proliferation and activation of lymphocytes in thymus.
After the transformation, all the types of T
lymphocytes leave the thymus and are stored in
lymphoid tissues of lymph nodes, spleen, bone
marrow and GI tract.
Types of T Lymphocytes

T lymphocytes are transformed into four types:

1. Helper T cells or inducer T cells. These cells are
also called CD4 cells because of the presence of
molecules called CD4 on their surface.
2. Cytotoxic T cells or killer T cells. These cells are
also called CD8 cells because of the presence of
molecules called CD8 on their surface.
3. Suppressor T cells.
4. Memory T cells.
B LYMPHOCYTES
B lymphocytes were first discovered in the bursa of
Fabricius in birds.
Bursa is absent in mammals and the
 In mammals processing of B lymphocytes takes place
in liver (during fetal life) and bone marrow (after
birth).
After transformation, the B lymphocytes are stored in
the lymphoid tissues of lymph nodes, spleen, bone
marrow and the GI tract.
ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS

Antigen-presenting cells are the special type of cells

in the body, which induce the release of antigenic
materials from invading organisms and later present
these materials to the helper T cells.
Types of Antigen-Presenting Cells
Antigen-presenting cells are of three types:
1. Macrophages
2. Dendritic cells
3. B lymphocytes.
Among these cells, macrophages are the major antigen-
presenting cells.
Role of Antigen-presenting Cells
 Invading foreign organisms are either engulfed by
macrophages through phagocytosis or trapped by
dendritic cells.
 Later, the antigen from these organisms is digested into
small peptide products. These antigenic peptide
products move towards the surface of the antigen-
presenting cells and bind with human leukocyte
antigen (HLA).
 HLA is a genetic matter present in the molecule of class
II major histocompatiblility complex (MHC), which is
situated on the surface of the antigen presenting cells.
MHC molecules in human beings are divided
into two types:
1. Class I MHC molecule: responsible for
presentation of endogenous antigens to cytotoxic T
cells.
2. Class II MHC molecule: It is responsible for
presenting the exogenous antigens to helper T cells.
Sequence of Events during Activationof Helper T cells
1. Helper T cell recognizes the antigen ----with the help of its own
surface receptor protein called T cell receptor.
2. Recognition of the antigen by the helper T cell initiates a complex
interaction between the helper T cell receptor and the antigen. This
reaction activates helper T cells.
3. At the same time, macrophages (the antigen-presenting cells) release
interleukin-1, which facilitates the activation and proliferation of
helper T cells.
4. Activated helper T cells proliferate and the proliferated cells enter the
circulation for further actions.
5. Simultaneously, the antigen which is bound to class II MHC molecules
activates the B cells also, resulting in the development of humoral
immunity
The central role of helper T cells
 ROLE OF HELPER T CELLS
 Helper T cells are of two types:
1. Helper-1 (TH1) cells
2. Helper-2 (TH2) cells.
TH1 cells are concerned with cellular immunity and secrete
two substances:
i. Interleukin-2, which activates the other T cells.
ii. Gamma interferon, which stimulates the phagocytic activity of cytotoxic
cells, macrophages and natural killer (NK) cells.
TH2 cells are concerned with humoral immunity and
secrete interleukin-4 and interleukin-5, which are concerned
with:
i. Activation of B cells.
ii. Proliferation of plasma cells.
iii.formation of Memory cells.
Overview of Immune System Responses
ACTIVATION OF B-CELLS WITH THE HELP OF T-CELLS
DIRECT ACTIVATION OF B-CELLS WITH ANTIGEN
Harmful Immune Responses
I. Rejection of tissue transplants is initiated by MHC
proteins on the transplanted cells and is mediated
mainly by cytotoxic T cells. This is called graft rejection
II. Transfusion reactions are mediated by antibodies.
Erythrocytes do not have MHC proteins, but they do
have plasma membrane proteins and carbohydrates
that can function as antigens when exposed to another
person’s blood.
III. Allergies (hypersensitivity reactions) caused by
allergens are of several types.
Role of cortisol in immunity
Cortisol is a corticosteroid hormone produced by the
adrenal cortex that is involved in the response to
stress; it increases blood pressure, blood sugar levels,
and suppresses the immune system.
Synthetic cortisol, also known as hydrocortisone, is
used as a drug mainly to fight allergies and
inflammation
Effects of Stress on the Immune System
Glucocorticoids bind
to the cytosolic Hypothalamus
glucocorticoid
receptor. This type of CRH
receptor gets
activated upon ligand Anterior pituitary
binding. After a
hormone binds to the ACTH
corresponding
receptor, the newly Adrenal cortex
formed receptor-
ligand complex Cortisol
translocates itself into
the cell nucleus
Glucocorticoid Alters glucose, Suppresses
receptors are found in fat, and protein inflammatory and
the cells of almost all metabolism immune responses
vertebrate tissues
Cortisol — The “Stress Hormone
The activated hormone receptor interacts with specific
transcription factors and prevents the transcription of
targeted genes. Glucocorticoids are able to prevent the
transcription of any of immune genes, including the IL-2
gene.
Stress causes the immune system to be suppressed. The
thymus gland atrophies (shrinks), so that fewer T-
lymphocytes are produced.
Helps regulate the stress response
Diverts metabolism from building tissues to supplying
energy for dealing with the stress
Causes signs and symptoms of chronic stress