Human Anatomy

Ninth Edition

Chapter 22
The Respiratory System

PowerPoint® Lecture
Presentations prepared by
Leslie Hendon
University of Alabama,
Birmingham
Molly Selba
University of Florida

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The Respiratory System
• Basic functions of the respiratory system
– Supplies body with oxygen
– Disposes of carbon dioxide
• Four processes involved in respiration
– Pulmonary ventilation
– External respiration
– Transport of respiratory gases
– Internal respiration

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Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory
System
• Respiratory organs
– Nose, nasal cavity, and paranasal sinuses
– Pharynx, larynx, and trachea
– Bronchi and smaller branches
– Lungs and alveoli

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Figure 22.1 The Major Respiratory
Organs

Oral cavity
Nasal cavity
Pharynx
Nostril
Left main
Larynx (primary)
bronchus
Trachea
Carina of Bronchi
trachea
Alveoli
Right main
(primary) Left lung
bronchus

Right lung Diaphragm

Parietal
pleura

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Organs of the Respiratory System
• Divided into
– Conducting zone
▪ Respiratory passageways that convey air
▪ Filter, humidify, and warm incoming air
– Respiratory zone
▪ Site of gas exchange in the lungs
▪ Includes structures that have alveoli

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The Nose (1 of 2)
• Provides an airway for respiration
• Moistens and warms air
• Filters inhaled air
• Resonating chamber for speech
• Houses olfactory receptors

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Figure 22.2 External Nose

Frontal bone
Epicranius, Nasal bone
frontal belly
Septal cartilage
Root and bridge
of nose Maxillary bone
(frontal process)
Lateral process of
Dorsum nasi septal cartilage
Ala of nose
Minor alar cartilages
Apex of nose Dense fibrous
Naris (nostril) connective tissue

Philtrum Major alar

cartilages

Surface anatomy External skeletal framework

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Nasal Cavity (1 of 2)
• External nares—nostrils
• Divided by nasal septum
• Continuous with nasopharynx
– Posterior nasal apertures—choanae

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Nasal Cavity (2 of 2)
• Two types of mucous membrane
– Olfactory mucosa
▪ Near roof of nasal cavity
▪ Houses olfactory (smell) receptors
– Respiratory mucosa
▪ Lines nasal cavity

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Figure 22.3b The Upper Respiratory
Tract
Cribriform plate
of ethmoid bone
Frontal sinus
Sphenoidal sinus
Posterior nasal Nasal cavity
aperture Nasal conchae
(superior, middle,
Nasopharynx and inferior
Pharyngeal tonsil Nasal meatuses
Opening of (superior, middle,
pharyngotympanic and inferior)
tube Nasal vestibule
Uvula Nostril

Oropharynx Hard palate

Palatine tonsil Soft palate
Isthmus of the
fauces Tongue

Lingual tonsil
Laryngopharynx Hyoid bone
Larynx
Epiglottis
Vestibular fold
Thyroid cartilage
Esophagus Vocal fold
Cricoid cartilage
Trachea
Thyroid gland
Illustration

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Respiratory Mucosa (1 of 2)
• Consists of
– Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
– Goblet cells within epithelium
– Underlying layer of lamina propria
▪ Compound tubuloalveolar glands in lamina propria
contain mucous and serous cells

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Respiratory Mucosa (2 of 2)
• Cilia of the epithelium move contaminated mucus
posteriorly to the pharynx
– Filtered particles and mucus are swallowed
– Eventually digested by digestive juices in the stomach
• Sensory nerve endings from CN V supply the respiratory
mucosa

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Nasal Conchae (1 of 2)
• Superior and middle nasal conchae
– Part of the ethmoid bone
• Inferior nasal conchae
– Separate bone
• Project medially from the lateral wall of the nasal cavity

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Nasal Conchae (2 of 2)
• Particulate matter
– Deflected to mucus-coated surfaces
• During inhalation
– Filter, heat, and moisten incoming air
• During exhalation
– Moisture and heat are reclaimed

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Paranasal Sinuses
• Paranasal sinuses are located within
– Frontal bone
– Maxillary bones
– Sphenoid bone
– Ethmoid bone
• Sinuses open into nasal cavity

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The Pharynx
• Funnel-shaped passageway
• Connects nasal cavity and mouth
• Divided into three sections by location
– Nasopharynx
– Oropharynx
– Laryngopharynx
• Type of mucosal lining changes along its length

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The Nasopharynx (1 of 2)
• Superior to the point where food enters
• Only an air passageway
• Closed off during swallowing
– Uvula reflects superiorly

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The Nasopharynx (2 of 2)
• Is continuous with nasal cavity
• Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids)
– Located on posterior wall
– Destroys entering pathogens
• Contains the opening to the pharyngotympanic tube
(auditory tube)
– Tubal tonsil
▪ Provides some protection from infection

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The Oropharynx
• Archlike entranceway—fauces
– Extends from soft palate to the epiglottis
• Stratified squamous epithelium
• Two types of tonsils in the oropharynx
– Palatine tonsils—in the lateral walls of the fauces
– Lingual tonsils—cover the posterior surface
of the tongue

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The Laryngopharynx
• Passageway for both food and air
• Stratified squamous epithelium
• Continuous with the esophagus and larynx
• Extends to inferior boundary of cricoid cartilage

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The Larynx (1 of 5)
• Extends from 4th to 6th cervical vertebrae
• Attaches to hyoid bone superiorly
– Opens into laryngopharynx
• Inferiorly is continuous with the trachea

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The Larynx (2 of 5)
• Three functions
– Voice production
– Provides an open airway
– Routes air and food into the proper channels
▪ Superior opening is
– Closed during swallowing
– Open during breathing
• Framework is arrangement of nine cartilages

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The Larynx (3 of 5)
• Thyroid cartilage
– Shield-shaped, forms laryngeal prominence (Adam’s
apple)
• Three pairs of small cartilages
– Arytenoid cartilages
– Corniculate cartilages
– Cuneiform cartilages
• Epiglottis
– Tips inferiorly during swallowing

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The Larynx (4 of 5)
• Vocal ligaments of the larynx
– Vocal folds (true vocal cords)
▪ Act in sound production
– Vestibular folds (false vocal cords)
▪ No role in sound production
• Rima glottidis—medial opening between vocal folds
• Glottis—rima glottidis and vocal folds together

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The Larynx (5 of 5)
• Epithelium of the larynx
– Stratified squamous—superior portion
– Pseudostratified ciliated columnar—inferior portion

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Figure 22.5a Anatomy of the Larynx

Body of hyoid bone

Laryngeal prominence
(Adam’s apple)

Cricoid cartilage
Sternal head
Sterno-
Clavicular head cleidomastoid

Clavicle
Jugular notch

Surface view

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Figure 22.5b Anatomy of the Larynx
Epiglottis

Body of hyoid bone Thyrohyoid

membrane

Thyroid cartilage
Laryngeal prominence
(Adam’s apple)
Cricothyroid ligament
Cricoid cartilage

Cricotracheal ligament
Tracheal
cartilages

Anterior view

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Figure 22.5d Anatomy of the Larynx
Epiglottis
Thyrohyoid Body of hyoid bone
membrane
Thyrohyoid membrane
Cuneiform cartilage Fatty pad
Corniculate cartilage Vestibular fold
(false vocal cord)
Arytenoid cartilage
Thyroid cartilage
Arytenoid muscle Vocal fold
(true vocal cord)
Cricoid cartilage Cricothyroid ligament
Cricotracheal ligament

Tracheal cartilages

Sagittal section (anterior on the right)

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Figure 22.6 Movement of the Vocal
Cords
Anterior
Thyroid cartilage

Cricoid cartilage
Vocal ligaments
of vocal cords
Glottis
Lateral
cricoarytenoid muscle
Arytenoid cartilage
Corniculate cartilage
Posterior
cricoarytenoid muscle
Posterior

Epiglottis
Vestibular fold (false vocal cord)
Vocal fold (true vocal cord)
Glottis

Inner lining of trachea

Cuneiform cartilage
Corniculate cartilage

Vocal folds in closed position; closed glottis Vocal folds in open position; open glottis

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The Larynx
• Voice production
– Length of the vocal folds changes with pitch
– Loudness depends on the force of air across the vocal
folds
• Sphincter function of the larynx
– Valsalva’s maneuver—straining
• Innervation of the larynx
– Recurrent laryngeal nerves (branch of vagus)

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The Trachea
• Descends into the mediastinum
• C-shaped cartilage rings keep airway open
• Trachealis—located between open ends of
C-shaped cartilage rings along length of posterior trachea
• Carina
– Marks where trachea divides into two primary bronchi
– Pseudostratified ciliated columnar

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Figure 22.7 Tissue Composition of the
Tracheal Wall
Posterior Mucosa

Pseudostratified
ciliated columnar
epithelium
Lamina propria
(connective tissue)
Esophagus
Submucosa
Trachealis Lumen of Seromucous gland
trachea in submucosa

Hyaline cartilage

Adventitia
Anterior
Cross section of the trachea
and esophagus Photomicrograph of the tracheal
wall (320)

Scanning electron micrograph of cilia in the trachea (2500)

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Bronchi in the Conducting Zone
• Bronchial tree
– Extensively branching respiratory passageways
▪ Primary bronchi (main bronchi)
– Largest bronchi
▪ Right main bronchi
– Wider and shorter than the left

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Figure 22.8a The Bronchi in the
Conducting Zone
Superior lobe Trachea
of right lung
Superior lobe
of left lung

Left main
(primary)
bronchus
Lobar
(secondary)
bronchus

Segmental
(tertiary)
bronchus

Inferior lobe
of left lung

Inferior lobe Middle lobe

of right lung of right lung

The branching of the bronchial tree

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Figure 22.8b The Bronchi in the
Conducting Zone
Mucosa
Pseudostratified
epithelium

Lamina propria

Lumen Fibromusculo-
cartilaginous layer
Cartilage plate
Smooth muscle

Photomicrograph of a bronchus (35)

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Bronchi in the Conducting Zone
• Secondary (lobar) bronchi
– Three on the right
– Two on the left
• Tertiary (segmental) bronchi
– Branch into each lung segment
• Bronchioles
– Little bronchi, less than 1 mm in diameter
• Terminal bronchioles
– Less than 0.5 mm in diameter

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Bronchial Tree—Changes in Tissue
Composition (1 of 2)
• Supportive connective tissues change
– C-shaped rings replaced by cartilage plates
• Epithelium changes
– Initially is pseudostratified ciliated columnar
– Replaced by simple columnar, then simple cuboidal
epithelium

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Bronchial Tree—Changes in Tissue
Composition (2 of 2)
• Smooth muscle becomes important
– Airways widens with sympathetic stimulation
– Airways constricts under parasympathetic direction

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The Respiratory Zone (1 of 5)
• Consists of air-exchanging structures
• Respiratory bronchioles
– Gas exchange occurs where smooth muscle is absent
– Branch from terminal bronchioles
– Lead to alveolar ducts
▪ Lead to alveolar sacs

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Figure 22.9a Structures of the
Respiratory Zone

Alveoli
Alveolar duct

Respiratory
bronchioles Alveolar duct

Alveolar
sac
Terminal
bronchiole

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Figure 22.9b Structures of the
Respiratory Zone

Respiratory
bronchiole
Alveolar
Alveolar pores
duct

Alveoli

Alveolar
sac

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The Respiratory Zone (2 of 5)
• Alveoli
– ~400 million alveoli account for tremendous surface
area for gas exchange
▪ Surface area of alveoli is 1500 square feet
(~140 square meters)

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The Respiratory Zone (3 of 5)
• Structure of alveoli
– Type I alveolar cells

▪ Single layer of simple squamous epithelial cells

▪ Surrounded by basal lamina
– Alveolar and capillary walls plus their basal lamina form
▪ Respiratory membrane

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The Respiratory Zone (4 of 5)
• Structure of alveoli

– Type II alveolar cells

▪ Are scattered among type I alveolar cells
▪ Are cuboidal epithelial cells
▪ Secrete surfactant
– Reduces surface tension within alveoli

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The Respiratory Zone (5 of 5)
• Structures of alveoli
– Alveolar macrophages
▪ Remove tiniest inhaled particles
▪ Migrate into bronchi
– Ciliary action takes alveolar macrophages to
pharynx

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Figure 22.10a Alveoli and the
Respiratory Membrane

Terminal bronchiole
Respiratory bronchiole

Smooth
muscle

Elastic
fibers

Alveolus

Capillaries
Diagrammatic view of capillary-alveoli relationships

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 Figure 22.10c Alveoli and the
Respiratory Membrane
Red blood
cell
Nucleus of type I
alveolar cell

Alveolar pores

Capillary
O2 Capillary
CO2

Macrophage Alveolus
Endothelial cell nucleus
Alveolus

Alveolar epithelium
Respiratory Fused basement membranes
membrane of the alveolar epithelium
and the capillary endothelium
Capillary endothelium

Alveoli (gas-filled Red blood cell Type II alveolar cell Type I

air spaces) in capillary (surfactant-secreting) alveolar cell
Detailed anatomy of the respiratory membrane

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The Respiratory Zone
• Features of alveoli
– Surrounded by elastic fibers
– Interconnect by way of alveolar pores
– Internal surfaces
▪ A site for free movement of alveolar macrophages

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Gross Anatomy of the Lungs (1 of 2)
• Major landmarks of the lungs
– Apex—superior tip of lung
– Base—concave inferior surface
– Hilum—indentation on mediastinal surface
▪ Is the region where blood vessels, bronchi, and
nerves enter and exit the lung
– Root—the structures that enter and leave the lung at
the hilum
▪ Blood vessels, bronchi, and nerves

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Gross Anatomy of the Lungs (2 of 2)
• Left lung
– Superior and inferior lobes
▪ Fissure—oblique
▪ Cardiac notch—the depression that accommodates
the heart
• Right lung
– Superior, middle, and inferior lobes
▪ Fissures—oblique and horizontal

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Figure 22.11a Anatomical Relationships
of Organs in the Thoracic Cavity
Intercostal muscle
Rib
Parietal pleura
Lung Pleural cavity
Visceral pleura
Trachea
Thymus

Apex of lung
Left
superior lobe
Right superior lobe
Oblique
Horizontal fissure fissure

Right middle lobe Left inferior

lobe
Oblique fissure
Right inferior lobe
Heart
(in mediastinum)
Diaphragm
Base of lung Cardiac notch

Anterior view. The lungs flank mediastinal structures laterally.

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Figure 22.11b Anatomical Relationships
of Organs in the Thoracic Cavity
Apex of lung

Pulmonary
artery

Left main
Left
bronchus
superior lobe
Oblique Pulmonary
fissure vein
Left inferior Impression
lobe of heart
Hilum Oblique
fissure
Aortic
impression
Lobules

Photograph of medial view of the left lung

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Blood Supply and Innervation of the
Lungs
• Pulmonary arteries
– Deliver oxygen-poor blood to the lungs
• Pulmonary veins
– Carry oxygenated blood to the heart
• Innervation
– Sympathetic, parasympathetic, and visceral sensory
fibers
▪ Parasympathetic—bronchoconstriction and
vasodilation
▪ Sympathetic—bronchodilation and vasoconstriction

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Figure 22.11d Anatomical Relationships
of Organs in the Thoracic Cavity
Esophagus
(in mediastinum)
Vertebra
Posterior Root of lung
at hilum
Left main bronchus
Right lung Left pulmonary artery
T6
Parietal pleura Left pulmonary vein
Visceral pleura
Left lung
Pleural cavity
Thoracic wall
Pericardial Pulmonary trunk
membranes
Heart (in mediastinum)
Sternum Anterior mediastinum
Anterior

Transverse section through the thorax at level of T6, viewed from above.
Lungs, pleural membranes, and major organs in the mediastinum are shown.

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The Pleurae
• A double-layered sac surrounding each lung
– Parietal pleura
– Visceral pleura
• Pleural cavity
– Potential space between the visceral and parietal
pleurae
• Pleurae help divide the thoracic cavity
– Central mediastinum
– Two lateral pleural compartments

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Figure 22.11a Anatomical Relationships
of Organs in the Thoracic Cavity

Intercostal muscle
Rib
Parietal pleura
Lung Pleural cavity
Visceral pleura
Trachea
Thymus

Apex of lung
Left
superior lobe
Right superior lobe
Oblique
Horizontal fissure fissure
Right middle lobe Left inferior
lobe
Oblique fissure
Right inferior lobe
Heart
(in mediastinum)
Diaphragm
Base of lung Cardiac notch

Anterior view. The lungs flank mediastinal structures laterally.

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 Figure 22.13 Position of the Lungs and the Pleural
Cavities in Reference to the Thoracic Cage

Clavicle
Lung
Rib 3
Rib 4
8 5
Nipple
9 6 Lung

10 7
Parietal 8
12 pleura Parietal
11 Midaxillary
line pleura
9 Infrasternal
angle at the
10 xiphisternal
joint
Midclavicular line

Posterior view Anterior view Costal

margin

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The Mechanisms of Ventilation
• Two phases of pulmonary ventilation
– Inspiration—inhalation
– Expiration—exhalation

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Inspiration (1 of 2)
• Volume of thoracic cavity increases
– Decreases internal gas pressure
– Action of the diaphragm
▪ Diaphragm flattens
– Action of intercostal muscles
▪ Contraction raises the ribs

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Inspiration (2 of 2)
• Deep inspiration requires
– Scalenes
– Sternocleidomastoid
– Pectoralis minor
– Quadratus lumborum
– Erector spinae—extends the back

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Expiration
• Quiet expiration—chiefly a passive process
– Inspiratory muscles relax
– Diaphragm moves superiorly
– Volume of thoracic cavity decreases
• Forced expiration—an active process
– Produced by contraction of
▪ Internal and external oblique muscles
▪ Transversus abdominis muscle

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Figure 22.14 Changes in Thoracic Volume and
Sequence of Events During Inspiration and
Expiration
Changes in anterior-posterior and Changes in lateral dimensions
Sequence of events superior-inferior dimensions (superior view)

1 Inspiratory muscles contract

(diaphragm descends; rib cage
rises).
Ribs are
elevated and
2 Thoracic cavity and pleural sternum flares
cavity increase in volume. as external
intercostals
contract.
Inspiration

3 Lungs are stretched; lung

volume increases.
External
intercostals
contract.
4 Air pressure in lungs
decreases.

5 Air (gases) flows into lungs. Diaphragm moves

inferiorly during
contraction.

1 Inspiratory muscles relax

(diaphragm rises; rib cage
descends because of recoil of
costal cartilages).
Ribs and
sternum are
2 Thoracic cavity and pleural depressed as
cavity decrease in volume. external
intercostals
Exspiration

relax.
3 Elastic lungs recoil
passively; lung volume External
decreases. intercostals
relax.

4 Air pressure in lungs rises.

Diaphragm
5 Air (gases) flows out of moves
lungs. superiorly
as it relaxes.

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