GROUP INFORMATION

NAMES : ROLL NOs

AYYAZ ALI : PG-36(G.L)

NATIQ HUSSAIN : PG-39
HAMMAD NASIR : PG-35
PRESENTATION TOPIC

CLASSIFICATION OF FOLDS,
FAULT, JOINTS AND
UNCONFORMITY.
MODES OF DEFORMATION OF
ROCKS, PARTS.
 UNCONFORMITIY
• DEFINITION:
“An unconformity is a buried erosional
or non-depositional surface separating two rock
masses or strata of different ages, indicating
that sediment deposition was not continuous.”
OR
“An old erosion surface which separates younger series
of rock from older series of rock.”
 TYPES OF UNCONFIRMITY
1. Angular unconformity
2. Disconformity
3. Local unconformity
4. Non conformity
5. Blended unconformity
 ANGULAR UNCONFORMITY
• When the bedding
planes of the older rock
layers are not parallel to
those of the younger
rock layers deposited
above them, an angular
unconformity results.
 DISCONFORMITY
• When lower and
upper series of bed
dips at same angle in
same direction.
There is no
difference in younger
and older rock.
 NONCONFORMITY
• A nonconformity exists
between sedimentary
rocks and metamorphic
or igneous rocks when
the sedimentary rock lies
above and was deposited
on the pre-existing and
eroded metamorphic or
igneous rock.
 LOCAL UNCONFORMITY
Local unconformity
is a similar to
disconformities, but
as the name implies,
it is distinctly local in
extent; the time
involved is short.
BLENDED UNCONFORMITY
A surface of erosion
may be covered by a
thick residual soil
that also mixes into
the underlying bed
rock.
INTRODUCTION TO FAULT
DEFINITION:
“ Fault is brittle type of deformation in which
fracture or rupture developed before the
displacement of block.”

=> Deformation is the change in the shape, size

or position of the bed due to the applied
forces.
 FAULT TERMINOLOGY
 Hanging wall: occur above the
fault
 Foot wall: occur below the fault

 Fault plane: is the fault surface

 Fault trace: is fault outcrop or

fault line
 Tip line: the dimension of fault

 Fault block: is rock mass bounded

at least by two opposite fault
 FAULT TERMINOLOGY
 Fault scrap: is the formation on the earth due to earth
quakes
 Fault heave: amount of horizontal displacement on a fault

 Fault throw: amount of vertical displacement on a fault

 Branch line: Line of intersection of two faults

 Fault zone: instead of single fracture, numerous of faults

in area
 FAULT
Faults may be described as
fractures along which relative
displacement of adjacent
block has taken place.

Fault allow the rock to move

relative to each other.
 TYPES OF FAULT
1. Dip-Slip fault
• Normal fault
• Reverse fault
• Thrust fault
2. Strike-Slip fault
3.Oblique-Slip fault
 DIP-SLIP FAULT
Dip-slip faults are inclined
fractures where the blocks
have mostly shifted
vertically.
There are two types of Dip-
Slip fault.
 Normal fault
 Reverse fault
 Strike-Slip fault
 NORMAL FAULT

A geologic fault in which the

hanging wall has moved
downward with reference to
the footwall.
Normal faults occur where
two blocks of rock are pulled
apart, as by tensional stress.
 REVERSE FAULT
Reverse faults are exactly the
opposite of normal faults. If the
hanging wall rises with reference
to the footwall, the result is a
reverse fault.

Reverse faults occur in areas

undergoing compression
(squishing).
 STRIKE-SLIP FAULT
Faults which move horizontally with little
to no vertical movements are known
as strike-slip faults and are classified as
either right-lateral or left-lateral.

If the block opposite an observer looking

across the fault moves to the right,
the slip style is termed right lateral; if the
block moves to the left, the motion is
termed left lateral.
 OBLIQUE-SLIP FAULT
Faults which show both dip-
slip and strike-slip motion are
known as oblique-slip faults.
While, in oblique slip faults
both sideways and upward &
downward displacement
occurs.
 CAUSES OF FAULT
 Faults are essentially the shear or sliding failures,
resulting from tensional, compressional,
rotational stress acting the crustal rock masses.

 They may be due to the shrinking Earth; or due to

the convection currents produced in the Earth.

 Normal faults are assumed to have been formed

under the horizontal tension.
 FOLD
DEFINITION:
“Folds are one of
the most common
geological structures
found in rocks. When a set
of horizontal layers are
subjected to compressive
forces, they bend either
upward or downward. The
bend noticed in rocks are
called folds.
 FOLD TERMINOLOGY
• Hinge(Axis): is the point of minimum radius of
curvature for a fold.
• Axial Plane: is the surface defined by connecting all
the hinge lines.
• Crest Surface: is a plane connected all crest.
• Crest(Apex): is the highest point of the fold surface.
• Trough: the lowest point in a cross section.
• Trough surface: is the plane connecting all troughs.
• Plunge: is the attitude of the axial line of fold.
 TYPES OF FOLD
1. Anticline fold
2. Syncline fold
3. Symmetrical fold
4. Asymmetrical fold
5. Overturned fold
 ANTICLINE FOLD
When the beds are bent upwards,
the resulting fold is called anticline
fold. This fold is convex upwards.
Anticline fold are folds in which
each half of the fold dips away
from the crest.
• It is caused by compressional
stress.
 SYNCLINE FOLD
Syncline fold is just opposite to
anticline in its nature, i.e. when the
beds are bent downwards the resulting
fold is called syncline. This fold is
convex downwards.

Synclines are folds in which each half

of the fold dips toward the trough of the
fold.

Syncline fold caused by compressional

stress.
 SYMMETRICAL FOLD
When the axial plane divides a fold
into two equal halves in such a way
that one half is the mirror image,
then the fold is called as
symmetrical fold.
Axial plane: it is the surface
define by connecting all the
hinge(point of min rad of
curvature for a fold) lines.
 ASYMMETRICAL FOLD
An asymmetrical fold is one in
which the axial plane is inclined.

If the compressive forces

responsible for folding are not
of the same magnitude,
asymmetrical fold are formed.
 OVERTURNED FOLD
• Usually, in simple folds,
the limbs show the order
of superposition. But
when one of the limb is
overturned, the order of
superposition of beds in
that limb will be in
reverse order and such a
fold is called an
overturned fold.
 CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF FOLD

 Most of the important folds, as already pointed out, are due to

tectonic causes. But a few folds of a minor type are due to
non-tectonic causes.

 Mainly, the compressive and shear type of tectonic forces are

responsible for the folding phenomenon. Igneous intrusion of
viscous magmas such as laccoliths and lopoliths also
contribute to folding.
 CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF FOLD

 Most of the important folds, as already pointed out, are due to

tectonic causes. But a few folds of a minor type are due to
non-tectonic causes.

 Mainly, the compressive and shear type of tectonic forces are

responsible for the folding phenomenon. Igneous intrusion of
viscous magmas such as laccoliths and lopoliths also
contribute to folding.
CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF FOLD
• Non-tectonic causes like landslides, creeping,
differential compaction, isostatic setting and
glaciations too are responsible for some folds.
These are minor in terms of frequency of
occurrence and magnitude.
 JOINTS
DEFINITION:
“ A brittle-fracture surface in rocks
along which little or no displacement has
occurred.”
Present in nearly all surface rocks.
 TYPES OF JOINT
There are several types of joints
Major are
1. Vertical
2. Horizontal
Actually all the types are classified according
to their direction.
 TYPES OF JOINT

• Longitudinal joints –
Joints which are
roughly parallel to
fold axes and often
fan around the fold.
 TYPES OF JOINT
• Cross-joints – Joints
which are
approximately
perpendicular to fold
axes.
• Diagonal joints – Joints
which typically occur as
conjugate joint sets that
trend oblique to the
fold axes.
 DEFORMATION OF ROCKS
AND PARTS
• DEFINITION:
“Any process that affects the shape, size, or
volume of an area of the Earth's crust.”

Actually the deformation is classified as

stress applied on rock or part of rock.
Mostly the deformation refers to fault.
 TYPES OF DEFORMATION
1. Brittle Deformation.
2. Elastic Deformation.
3. Ductile Deformation and etc
 Brittle Deformation.

DEFINITION:
“ The
deformation of rocks
that can happens
easily.”
 DUCTILE DEFORMATION
DEFINITION:
“ The
deformation of rocks
which deforms
without losing its
toughness.”
 ELASTIC DEFORMATION
DEFINTION:
“ The rock
returns to its original
shape when the
stress is removed is
called elastic
deformation.”
 References
• https://geo.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_D
avis/GEL_056%3A_Introduction_to_Geophysics/Geophysics_i
s_everywhere_in_geology.../01%3A_Rheology_of_Rocks/1.03
%3A_Elastic_Deformation
• https://pressbooks.senecacollege.ca/millergeolgeomorph/cha
pter/deformation/
• https://www2.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens1110/deform.htm
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-deformation-defin
ition-types-process.html
• FAULTS, FOLDS, AND UNCERTAINITY.(FB PAGE)
• www.wikipedia.com