• Reproduction

Reproduction is the biological process by which new

individuals of the same kind are produced.
Importance of Reproduction:
• Reproduction is not essential for the survival of an
organism, but is vital for the survival of a species.
• Reproduction produces identical copies of the body design.
Basic event in Reproduction: DNA Copying
Importance of DNA copying:
• DNA (Deoxy-ribose Nucleic Acid) is the informational
macromolecule of our body.
• It provides information for protein synthesis. Wrong DNA
copying means wrong protein synthesis and hence wrong body
design
• During cellular reproduction, DNA
duplication occurs followed by creation of an
additional cellular apparatus.
Variations:
• The changes in the DNA during its copying
are variations. The process of DNA copying is
not accurate, resulting in variations arising
during reproduction, which is the basis for
evolution.
• Variations may or may not be beneficial for
the individual, but help in the survival of the
species during adverse conditions.
 Importance of reproduction
• It involves transmission of genetic
material from generation to generation
• It ensures the survival of the species.
• It introduces variations & accumulation
of variations over a period leads to
evolution.
• Two types of reproduction—sexual and
asexual
 Asexual reproduction

• Does not involve the fusion of

gametes
• Requires only one parent
• Offsprings produced are MOSTLY
exact copies of their parents.
Types of Asexual Reproduction

Regeneration
 Modes of asexual
reproduction
Fission- involves cell
division or splitting of cells
Binary fission: A single
parent organism divides
into two new organisms.
E.g.: Amoeba, BINARY FISSION
Paramecium, Euglena
Multiple fission: A single
parent organism divides
into many new organisms.
E.g. Plasmodium, Volvox
BINARY FISSION MULTIPLE FISSION
One parent divides One parent divides
and gives rise to two into multiple daughter
daughter cells cells.
The division does The division does not
takes place at a fixed takes place at a fixed
orientation in some orientation or angle.
organisms
E.g.: Amoeba, E.g. Plasmodium,
Paramecium, Euglena Volvox
 Budding

• The Process in which organism produces an outgrowth on

its body surface, which then matures and develops into a
new individual due to mitotic division of specialised
cells(proliferative cells) at any specific point.
• Parental identity is maintained.
• E.g. Hydra, Yeast
FRAGMENTATION
Certain multicellular organisms, on maturation, break up into
smaller fragments, each of which develops into new individual.
The new organisms formed are usually unequal in size.
E.g. Spirogyra
 Regeneration
New organisms
formed from body
parts when fully
differentiated
organisms are cut
accidently. They
have specialised
proliferative cells
(totipotent) E.g..
Planaria
 Fragmentation Regeneration
1. Fragmentation occurs in multi- 1. Regeneration occurs in fully
cellular organisms with simple differentiated multi-cellular
body organisation. organisms with complex body
organization.
2. In fragmentation, an organism 2. In regeneration organisms if
breaks into pieces and each breaks into pieces, each piece
piece develops into new may or may not develop into
individual. new individual.
3. No specialised cells are 3. In regeneration, specialised
involved in fragmentation. cells proliferate and form a mass
of cells. The cells from the mass
differentiate to form different
cells types and tissues.

Example: Spirogyra Example: Regeneration of blood

cells in mammals, PLANARIAS.
Spore Formation : In this method reproductive
structures called sporangia produce tiny cells called
spores. When the spores come in contact with moist
surface, they develop into new individual organisms.
They are highly resistant to desiccation and heat so they
are able to survive under unfavourable conditions.
E.g. Rhizopus, Mucor, Penicillium etc
 Vegetative
propagation
New plants are
produced asexually
from roots, stems or
leaves of the parent
plant.
E.g., rose,
sugarcane, potato,
bryophyllum,
banana etc.
Vegetative propagation is classified into two types:
1. Natural
2. Artificial
Natural vegetative propagation
It is a process involving structural
modification of stems, roots, or
leaves of plants.
Propagation by leaves: In
Bryophyllum, the leaf allows the
development of many shoot
buds. These buds form roots at
their base. When these plantlets
break and fall from the parent
leaf on the ground, a new plant
is formed.
Propagation by shoots: In a potato plant, the stem
is modified to store food. This modified stem is
called the tuber. Since it is a modified stem, it has
many auxiliary buds over its surface called eyes.
Each of these buds, when planted in soil, can
develop into a new plant. E.g. potato, sugarcane,
rose, ginger.
Propagation by roots: Roots are modified to store
foods in dahlia, sweet potato, asparagus etc. When
these get detached from the parent plant, they
form a new plant.
ARTIFICIAL METHODS
Layering is a means of plant propagation in which a
portion of an aerial stem grows roots while still
attached to the parent plant and then detaches as an
independent plant. Layering is also utilized by
horticulturists to propagate desirable plants.
Grafting is a horticultural technique whereby tissues from
one plant are inserted into those of another so that the two
sets of vascular tissues may join together.
In most cases, one plant is selected for its roots and this is
called the stock or rootstock. The other plant is selected for
its stems, leaves,flowers, or fruits and is called the scion The
scion contains the desired genes to be duplicated in future
production by the stock/scion plant.
Scion

Stalk
CUTTING: Propagating a
plant by cutting involves
obtaining a root or stem
sample and rooting it in
soil or water. This is one
way to preserve
perennial plants that
won't survive the
winter outdoors in your
climate. It's also a good
way to share plants
with other gardeners.
Benefits of Vegetative Propagation
1. Plants can bear flowers, fruits earlier than
those produced from seeds.
2. Growing plants like Banana, orange, rose,
jasmine that have lost the capacity to produce
seeds.
3. Genetical similarity is maintained in the
plants.
4. Helps in growing seedless fruits.
5. Cheaper and easier method of growing
plants.
Micro propagation/ Tissue culture
It is a method of plant propagation in
which an isolated plant part is grown in a
nutrient medium under aseptic condition.

Advantages of micro propagation

1. Rapid method of multiplication.
2. Production of virus free plants .
 Advantages of asexual reproduction
1. Genetically identical off springs are formed by this
method
2. It is a rapid method of multiplication.

Disadvantages of asexual reproduction

1. No genetic variation or very less variations.
2. As large number of off springs are produced it
may result in overcrowding .
 Sexual Reproduction

Meiosis Meiosis

New Individual (2n)

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
1. It involves two parents.
2. Each parent produces sex cells (gametes)
3. Male gametes- Spermatozoa; female gametes- ova
(eggs)
4. Gametes are formed by meiotic division ,hence
they are. haploid
5. The male & female gametes fuse to form a diploid
zygote It is called fertilisation
6. The zygote undergoes repeated mitotic division &
form the embryo.
7. The embryo differentiates to form a full organism.
8. The offspring formed are genetically different from
the parents.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
Flowers are the reproductive parts of an angiosperm plant.
 Carpel: They are
Stamens in a
the female
flower are
reproductive parts
collectively
of a flower also
called
known as
Androecium.
Gynoecium
Do you know the world’s smallest
flower? Wolffia

Do you know the world’s largests flower?

Rafflesia
On the basis of the presence or absence of the reproductive
parts, flowers can be of two types- Bisexual and Unisexual.
Bisexual flowers: If both the
stamen and carpel are present in a
flower, then it is called a bisexual
flower. Lily, rose, hibiscus, mustard,
gulmohur (Delonix regia), etc.
Unisexual flowers: If either the
stamen or carpel is present in a
flower, then it is called a unisexual
flower. Corn, watermelon
marijuana, papaya, etc. are some
examples of unisexual flowers.
Pollination
Transfer of pollen grains from an anther to a stigma.

Cross - Pollination
Agents for Pollination
1.Wind 2.Water
3.Animals
Self - Pollination
Fertilization : After the pollen grain is transferred to the
stigma it produces a pollen tube which passes through the
style and enters the ovary and ovule. In the ovule the male
germ cell(male gamete) fuses with the female germ
cell(female gamete) to form a zygote. This is called fertilization.
Post Fertilization Events

Zygote divides several times Embryo

Ovule tough coat Seed

Ovary ripens Fruit

Petals, Sepals, Stamens, Style and Stigma Shrivel and

Fall Off
Do you know that some plants are able to produce fruits
without the process of fertilization?
This phenomenon is known as parthenocarpy.
Seed germination
The embryo inside a seed is inactive. It becomes active
under favourable conditions and grows out of the seed
coat as a seedling. This process is known as germination.
Favourable conditions for germination are moisture, air,
and temperature.
When a seed germinates, the portion above the
cotyledons, which grows into a shoot, is called a plumule.
The portion below the cotyledons, which grows into a root,
is called a radicle.
Adolescence
Secondary sexual changes in boys
and girls
Puberty
 Male reproductive system
The organs present in the male reproductive system consist of
• A pair of testes,
• Vas deferens,
• Prostate gland and seminal vesicles
• Urethra
FUNCTIONS
Testes:
• To produce sperms
• To produce a hormone called testosterone, which brings
about secondary sex characteristics in boys.
They are located outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch
called the scrotum because sperm production by the testis
requires a lower temperature(2 TO 3o C) than the normal
body temperature. Also they are protected inside the
scrotum.
Vas deferens
• It carries the sperms from the testes to the
urethra.
• It also receives the ducts, which bring products
from the seminal vesicles and prostate glands.
Seminal vesicles and prostate glands
• The fluids from these organs provide nutrients in
the form of fructose, calcium, and some enzymes.
• The secretions from the seminal vesicles and
prostate glands lubricate the sperms and makes
their transport easier.
Urethra
• It extends to an external opening.
Structure of a sperm
It consists of a head, middle piece, and a tail.
The head contains a nucleus, containing the
chromosomal material.
The middle piece has many mitochondria to
provide energy for the movement of the tail.
The tail facilitates the movement of the sperm into
the female body.
Female reproductive system
It consists of
A pair of ovaries A pair of oviducts or Fallopian tube
 Uterus  Vagina.

FUNCTIONS:
OVARIES:
• It RELEASES A SINGLE egg in the female body EVERY
MONTH.
• It also produces a hormone called oestrogen or
estrogen, which brings about secondary sexual
characters in females.
OVIDUCT OR FALLOPIAN TUBE:
• It is the place where fertilization or fusion of sperm
and egg takes place.
UTERUS:
• It is the site of implantation of the embryo.
• It is the place where growth and development of
embryo into foetus and then baby takes place.
VAGINA:
• It is the place of entry of sperms in female body.

Structure of the ovum

It contains a single nucleus, surrounded by the cytoplasm.
It is usually bigger and non motile.
It has reserved food
Process of Fertilization
• The process of fusion of the sperm and ovum is
called fertilization.
• Fertilization takes place in the fallopian tubes.
• During fertilization, the haploid nucleus of the
sperm and ovum fuse to form a diploid szygote.
• This zygote divides to form an embryo.

Development of an embryo inside the female body

The zygote formed after fertilization in the fallopian
tubes is implanted in the uterus. The uterus is also
known as the womb. Here, the zygote divides to
form an embryo, which develops into a foetus.
When egg is fertilized
Zygote gets implanted in the
uterus lining and starts dividing.
Uterus lining thickens and is richly
supplied with blood vessels to
nourish growing embryo.
Uterine wall is embedded with a
disc of special tissue called
PLACENTA.
Development of child takes place
in approx. 9 months.(GESTATION
PERIOD- pregnancy period)
When egg is not fertilized
Egg lives for about one day.
Uterus lining slowly breaks
and comes out through the
vagina as blood and mucous.
This cycle occurs every month
after 28-30 days and is called
MENSTRUATION

Child is born as a result of

rhythmic contractions of muscles
in uterus.
The Embryo gets nutrition from the mother's
blood with the help of a special tissue called
PLACENTA.
Features :
• It is supplied with many blood vessels and villi
• It provides a large surface area for glucose and
oxygen to pass from the mother to the embryo.
• The wastes from developing embryo are
removed to mother's blood through placenta.
 The first menstrual flow is called MENARCHE.

 The sexual cycle in a woman continues upto the

age of 45 to 50 years. After that the ovary do not
release egg. This stage is called MENOPAUSE.

 It also marks the end of menstruation in the

women.
Contraception is the process where different methods are
used to prevent pregnancy. They interfere with processes
such as fertilization, implantation of an embryo, ovulation
etc.
• These methods help in birth control and prevent
unwanted pregnancies.
• It helps in preventing sexually transmitted diseases.
Contraceptive methods can be broadly divided into the
following types:

NATURAL METHODS BARRIER METHODS

CONTRACEPTIVE
METHODS
IMPLANTS AND
CHEMICAL METHODS SURGICAL METHODS
(i) Natural methods: In this method, sexual act is avoided
from day 10th to 17th of the menstrual cycle since during
this period ovulation is expected. Therefore, the chances of
fertilization are very high.
(ii) Barrier methods: In this method, the fertilization of ovum
and sperm is prevented with the help of barriers. Barriers are
available for both males and females. Condoms act as
barriers.
(iii) Oral contraceptives: In this method, tablets or drugs are
taken orally. These contain small doses of hormones, which
prevent the release of eggs and prevent fertilization.
E.g. i-Pills etc
(iv) Implants and surgical methods: Contraceptive devices
such as the loop or Copper-T are placed in the uterus to
prevent pregnancies. However, they can cause side effects in
the uterus.
Surgical methods
Vasectomy
It includes the blocking of vas deferens by
surgery to prevent the transfer of sperms by
a process known as vasectomy.
Tubectomy
When the fallopian tubes in the female body
can be blocked by surgery to prevent the egg
from reaching the uterus. This process is
known as tubectomy.
1. (i) Give two reasons for avoiding frequent
pregnancies by women.
(ii) Explain the following methods of contraception
giving one example of each.
(a) Barrier method. (b) Surgical method.
2. In human females, what happens when
(i) egg is fertilised
(ii) egg is not fertilised?
3. Give two examples each of sexually transmitted
diseases (STDs) caused
by (i) Virus; (ii) bacteria.
1. Trace and explain the steps involved in
the formation of seed starting from
pollination.
2. List any four modes of asexual
reproduction. Give one example of each.
1. What is importance of DNA copying in
reproduction.
2. Why is variation beneficial to the species but
not necessarily for the individual?
3. Why is vegetative propagation practised for
growing some types of plants?
4. Distinguish between male & female gamete.
5. Write two important functions of
testosterone.
6. What is placenta? Also write its two
functions.
7. Why regeneration not considered as
reproduction.
8. With the help of flow diagram trace the
path of sperm from the site of its formation to
outside the body of males.
9. What is tissue culture in plants?
10. State the role of reproduction in providing
stability to populations of various species.