Defence University College of

Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering

BY: Tesfahun .A
 CHAPTER ONE
BASIC CONCEPTS

Introduction
Electric circuit theory and electromagnetic theory are the two fundamental theories upon which all branches of
electrical engineering are built.
Many branches of electrical engineering, such as power, electric machines, control, electronics, communications,
and instrumentation, are based on electric circuit theory.
Therefore, the basic electric circuit theory course is the most important course for an electrical engineering
student, and always an excellent starting point for a beginning student in electrical engineering education.
In electrical engineering, we are often interested in communicating or transferring energy from one point to
another. To do this requires an interconnection of electrical devices.
Such interconnection is referred to as an electric circuit, and each component of the circuit is known as an
element.
An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements
 Charge and Current
The concept of electric charge is the underlying principle for explaining all electrical phenomena.
Also, the most basic quantity in an electric circuit is the electric charge.
Charge: is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists, measured in coulombs (C).
We know from elementary physics that all matter is made of fundamental building blocks known as atoms and
that each atom consists of electrons, protons, and neutrons.
We also know that the charge e on an electron is negative and equal in magnitude to 1.602× C, while a proton
carries a positive charge of the same magnitude as the electron.
The presence of equal numbers of protons and electrons leaves an atom neutrally charged.
The following points should be noted abut electric charge:

i. The coulomb is a large unit for charges. In 1 C of charge, there are 1/(1.602 × ) = 6.24 × electrons. Thus, realistic or
laboratory values of charges are on the order of pC, nC, or µC.
ii. According to experimental observations, the only charges that occur in nature are integral multiples of the electronic charge
e = -1.602 × C.
iii. The law of conservation of charge states that charge can neither be created nor destroyed, only transferred. Thus the
 Cont...
When a conducting wire (consisting of several atoms) is connected to a battery (a source of electromotive force),
the charges are compelled to move; positive charges move in one direction while negative charges move in the
opposite direction.
This motion of charges creates electric current.
It is conventional to take the current flow as the movement of positive charges, that is, opposite to the flow of
negative charges.

Electric current: is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A).
(1.1)

The charge transferred between time t0 and t is obtained by integrating both sides eq.(1.1). We obtain,
(1.2)
 Cont…
Direction of current:
 The sign of the current indicates the direction in which the charge is moving with reference to the direction of interest we
define.

 We need not use the direction that the charge moves in as our reference, and often have no choice in the matter.

 A positive current through a component is the same as a negative current flowing in the opposite direction.

Example 1.1
How much charge is represented by 4,600 electrons?
Solution
Each electron has -1.602 × 10-19 C. Hence 4,600 electrons will have -1.602 × 10-19 C/electron × 4,600 electrons
= -7.369 × 10-16 C
Exercise 1. 1
Calculate the amount of charge represented by two million protons.
Answer: +3.204 × C.
 Cont...
Example 1.2:

Voltage (V), Potential difference (p.d) and electromotive force (emf)

Electrons move when there is a difference in charge between two locations.
This difference is expressed as potential difference, or voltage and always expressed with reference to two locations.
Vab= (1.3)
where w is energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulombs (C). The voltage Vab or simply V is measured in volts
(V).
It is evident that: 1 Volt = 1 joule/coulomb = 1 newton meter/coulomb
 Cont...

Figure 1.4 Polarity of voltage vab

Figure 1.5 Two equivalent representations of the same voltage vab: (a) point a is 9 V above point b, (b) point b is -9 V
above point a.
 Voltage (or potential difference)

Voltage (or potential difference): is the energy required to move a unit charge through an element, measured in volts (V).
Figure 1.5 shows the voltage across an element (represented by a rectangular block) connected to points a and b. The plus (+)
and minus (-) signs are used to define reference direction or voltage polarity.

The Vab can be interpreted in two ways: (1) point a is at a potential of Vab volts higher than point b, or (2) the potential at
point a with respect to point b is Vab. It follows logically that in general:
Current and voltage are the two basic variables in electric circuits.
The common term signal is used for an electric quantity such as a current or a voltage (or even electromagnetic wave) when it is
used for conveying information.
Power and Energy
Although current and voltage are the two basic variables in an electric circuit, they are not sufficient by themselves. For practical
purposes, we need to know how much power an electric device can handle.
Power: is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W).
We write this relationship as;
(1.4)

where p is power in watts (W), w is energy in joules (J), and t is time in seconds (s). Or from Eq. (1.1), (1.3), and (1.4), it
follows that:
 Cont...

(1.5)
Or

The power is a time varying quantity and is called the instantaneous power.
Thus, the power absorbed or supplied by an element is the product of the voltage across the element and the current through it.
Current direction and voltage polarity play a major role in determining the sign of power.

It is therefore important that we pay attention to the relationship between current i and voltage v in Fig. 1.6(a).

The voltage polarity and current direction must conform with those shown in Fig. 1.6(a) in order for the power to have a positive sign.

This is known as the passive sign convention. By the passive sign convention, current enters through the positive polarity of the voltage.
In this case, p = +vi or vi > 0 implies that the element is absorbing power.
However, if p = -vi or vi < 0, as in Fig. 1.6(b), the element is releasing or supplying power.

Figure 1.6 Reference polarities for power using the passive sign convention: (a) absorbing power, (b) supplying power.
 Passive sign convention and Electron Flow
 Passive sign convention: is satisfied when the current enters through the positive terminal of an element and p = +vi.
But, if the current enters through the negative terminal, p = -vi.
 Conventional Current assumes that current flows out of the positive side of the battery, through the circuit, and
back to the negative side of the battery.
This was the convention established when electricity was first discovered, but it is incorrect!

 Electron Flow is what actually happens. The electrons flow out of the negative side of the battery, through the
circuit, and back to the positive side of the battery.

 Energy: the capacity or ability to do work, and measured in joules (J).

From Eq. (1.5), the energy absorbed or supplied by an element from time-to-time t is
(1.6)
Example 1.3
Cont…
An energy source forces a constant current of 2 A for 10 s to flow through a lightbulb. If 2.3 kJ is given off in the form of light
and heat energy, calculate the voltage drop across the bulb.

Example 1.4
 Circuit Elements
An element is the basic building block of a circuit. An electric circuit is simply an interconnection of the elements.
Circuit analysis is the process of determining voltages across (or the currents through) the elements of the circuit.

The ideal basic circuit elements are:

Voltage source
Resistor
Inductor
Capacitor
Inductor
Properties of the ideal basic circuit element:
 It has two terminals (labeled “1” and “2”).
 It can be described mathematically in terms of a voltage v and/or a current i.
 It cannot be subdivided into other circuit elements, hence it is basic.
 It is ideal in the sense that it has idealized properties that do not necessarily hold for real circuit elements.
 There are two types of elements found in electric circuits: passive elements and active elements.
 An active element is capable of generating energy while a passive element is not.

 The most important active elements are voltage or current sources that generally deliver power to the circuit connected to
 Cont...
Passive Circuit Elements
The most basic of the passive circuit elements are the resistance, inductance and capacitance.
Passive elements do not generate (convert from non-electrical energy) any electricity.
They may either consume energy (i.e. convert from electrical form to a non-electrical form such as heat or light), or store
energy (in electrostatic and electromagnetic fields).

Active Circuit Elements

 An Active Circuit Element is a component in a circuit which is capable of producing or generating energy.
 Producing energy actually means converting non-electrical form of energy to an electrical form.
 Active circuit elements are thus sources of energy (or simply sources) and can be categorized into voltage sources and the
current sources.
 Both voltage and current sources can also be categorized as being independent sources,

 where the generated voltage (or current) does not depend on any other circuit voltage or current; and dependent sources,
where the generated voltage (or current) depends on another circuit voltage or current.

 Typical active elements include generators, batteries, and operational amplifiers.

 Cont...

Necessary Conditions for Current Flow

There are two conditions which are necessary to set up and maintain a flow of current in a network or circuit.
These are:
i. There must be a voltage source (potential difference) present to provide the electrical work which will force
current to flow.
ii. The circuit must be closed.
 Electromagnetic phenomenon
Introduction to Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism can be defined as a science of charge and of the forces and fields that are related to charge.
Electricity and magnetism are 2 aspects of electromagnetism.
 Electromagnetism is a branch of physics that is about the electromagnetic force that is between electrically charged particles.
Electromagnetism is the basic reason why the electrons are bound to the nucleus and responsible for the complete structure of
the nucleus.
This force occurs between the electrically charged particles and acts between the charged particles.
It is the combination of all the magnetic and electrical forces.
Nature of Magnetism
 Magnets can be found in a natural state in the form of a magnetic ore (permanent magnet), with the two main types being
Magnetite also called "iron oxide", (FE3O4) and Lodestone, also called "leading stone".
 For most practical applications these natural occurring magnets can be disregarded as their magnetism is very low and because
nowadays, man-made artificial magnets can be produced in many different shapes, sizes and magnetic strengths.
 Natural magnets are minerals or metals that generate a stable magnetic field without the use of an external source of energy.
 Natural magnets are always permanent, whereas man made magnets might be temporary or permanent.
 Magnets which are made from iron in different shape and sizes for different uses are called artificial magnets.
 It is a magnetized piece of iron, steel, cobalt, or nickel
 Cont…
The phenomenon of electromagnetism refers to the interaction between electric currents and magnetic fields,
resulting in the creation of a magnetic field by an electric current or the generation of an electric current by a
changing magnetic field.
An electromagnet is a type of magnet that is created by passing an electric current through a coil of wire.

The magnetic field produced by an electromagnet can be controlled by adjusting the strength of the electric
current flowing through the coil.
When an electric current flows through the wire, it generates a magnetic field around the wire.

Overall, the phenomenon of electromagnetism plays a fundamental role in various aspects of modern technology
and is an essential concept in the field of physics.
 Cont...
 Electromagnetism is produced when an electrical current flows through a simple conductor such as a piece of wire or cable.
 A small magnetic field is created around the conductor with the direction of this magnetic field with regards to its "North" and
"South" poles being determined by the direction of the current flowing through the conductor.
 Magnetism plays an important role in Electrical and Electronic Engineering because without it components such as relays,
solenoids, inductors, chokes, coils, loudspeakers, motors, generators, transformers, and electricity meters etc., would not work
if magnetism did not exist.
 Then every coil of wire uses the effect of electromagnetism when an electrical current flows through it.
 All electromagnetic devices make use of magnetic fields in their operation.
 These magnetic fields may be produced by permanent magnets or electromagnets.
 Magnetic fields are created by alternating- and direct-current sources to provide the necessary medium for developing
generator action and motor action.
 With the application of electromagnet transformers provide energy transfer from one electric circuit to another via the
changing magnetic field.
 It will become apparent that there is both transfer and storage of energy in the magnetic fields of the various electromagnetic
devices.
 Hence all electromagnetic devices are constructed with appropriate magnetic circuits.
 Natural Magnets
The magnets that are found naturally is termed Natural Magnet.

Natural magnets are Permanent Magnets, which means they do not lose their magnetic power.

 Natural Magnets are found in different places such as sandy deposits.

The strongest natural magnet is Lodestone called Magnetite or Iron oxide which is the ore of iron.

 Some other natural magnets are Minerals such as Pyrrhotite or Iron Sulphide, Ferrite and Columbite.
Artificial Magnets
These are man-made magnets, made from magnetic materials.
These are commonly made by magnetising iron or steel alloys electrically.
Artificial magnets are made by stroking a magnetic material with magnetite or with other artificial magnets.
These kinds of process are called Magnetisation.
The magnetisation is a process in which an object is turned to the permanent or temporary magnet by exposing it
to an external maternal magnetic field.
Artificial magnets normally have stronger magnetic fields than Natural Magnets.
 Cont…
There are various shapes, and artificial magnet examples are made such as bar magnet, U-Shaped Magnets,
Horseshoe Magnets, Cylindrical Magnets, disc magnets, ring magnets and electromagnets.
The artificial magnets are made of Nickel, cobalt, steel, iron etc. and made of alloys such as Neodynium and
Samarium

Depending upon their magnetic power retaining nature, the artificial magnets are classified into two types, one
per temporary and another one is a permanent magnet.
Temporary Magnets
Temporary Magnets are made by an external magnetic field.
Temporary Magnets lose its magnetic property as soon as the external magnetic field is removed.
Temporary Magnets made from soft iron.
Soft iron acts as Magnets by the influence of an external magnetic field produced in a coil of wire carrying
electricity.
 Soft iron loses its magnetic property as soon the electricity is stopped.
 Examples: Magnets used in Crane, Electric Bell.
 Permanent Magnets

 Permanent Magnets are artificial magnets that retain its magnetic property even after the external magnetic field
is taken off.
 The Permanent magnets are made from hardened steel and alloys of some metals.
 Generally, the alloy used to make permanent magnets are ALNICO (An alloy of aluminum, nickel, and cobalt).
 Examples of Permanent Magnet usages are Refrigerator, bar magnet, speaker magnet, fridge, and magnetic
compass etc.
 Neodymium magnets are the strongest magnets in the earth.
 Alnico cow magnets are used to attract sharp iron objects such as wire, nail ingested by animals which grazing,
that also damage to its digestive tract.
 Magnetic Fields
The ends of a magnet where the magnetic field is concentrated are called poles.

Every magnet has exactly two poles. The two poles of a magnet are the North (N) and South (S) poles.
Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force
Some important properties of magnetic lines of force are ascribed bellow:

1) Magnetic lines of force are directed from north to south outside a magnet. The direction is determined by the
north pole of a small magnet held in the field.

Figure: Magnetic field pattern near a magnet

2) Magnetic lines of force are continuous.
3) Magnetic lines of force enter or leave a magnetic surface at right angles.
 Cont...
4) Magnetic lines of force cannot cross each other.
5) Magnetic lines of force in the same direction tend to repel each other.
6) Magnetic lines of force tend to be as short as possible.
7) Magnetic lines of force occupy three-dimensional space extending (theoretically) to infinity.
The principle of charge conservation
 Like Coulomb’s law, the principle of charge conservation is a very fundamental law of nature.
 According to the principle, the charge of an isolated system (separate system) cannot change.
If another positively charged particle appears within a system, a particle with a negative charge of the same magnitude (value)
will be created at the same time; thus, the principle of conservation of charge is maintained.
In nature, a pair of oppositely charged particles are formed when high-energy radiation interacts with matter; an electron and a
positron are formed in this process known as pair production.
Magnetic Field Produced by Current-Carrying Conductor (Electromagnetism)
A magnetic field is always associated with a current-carrying conductor, as illustrated in Figure Exploring the magnetic field
by means of a compass, we observe the following:
The magnetic field is strongest perpendicular to the current direction.
 Cont…

Figure: Direction of magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor.

 As we traverse a path around the conductor, we find that the magnetic field is always tangent to the direction of current flow.
 We can trace a path around the conductor so that continuous magnetic lines of force surround the conductor.
If we reverse the direction of current flow, the direction of the magnetic field also changes.
The field is strongest near the wire and decreases as we move farther from it. (We can obtain a measure of field strength by
trying to deflect the magnet needle from the position it has assumed in the field.
 At a point where the field is strong, it will be more difficult to deflect it than at a point where it is weak.)
 Cont…
 If we grasp the conductor with our right hand, the thumb pointing in the direction of the current, our fingers
will point in the same direction as the north pole of the compass.
 This method of determining the directions of current flow in a conductor and the surrounding lines of force is
called Ampere's right-hand rule
 For a single current carrying conductor; if the thumb of our right hand indicates to the direction of current flow,
then the other fingers indicate the direction of magnetic field line.
 We can also increase the magnetic field strength by increasing the magnitude of current in the coil.
 A cylindrical coil closely wound with a large number of turns of insulated wire is called solenoid.
 Thus, we see that the magnetic field strength is proportional to both the number of turns and the current

Figure: Magnetic field direction of solenoid by right hand rule.

 Summery Questions
1)Which of the following describe the relation between charge and current?
a) i= b) i= c) i= d) a&b
2) Calculate the amount of charge represented by 4 million proton?
a) 6.408 b) 6.408 c) 4.408 d) 4.408
3) Which of the following true about electron flow?
b) The electrons flow out of the negative side of the battery
c) The electrons flow out of the positive side of the battery
d) The electrons flow out of both negative and positive side of the battery
e) a &c
4) Which of the following is passive circuit elements?
f) Battery b) amplifier c) generator d) none of the above
5) Which of the followings the property of magnetic line of force?
g) Magnetic lines of force are continuous.
h) Magnetic lines of force are directed from north to south outside a magnet.
i) Magnetic lines of force cannot cross each other.
d) All of the above
6) What is method to determine the direction current in the magnetic field?
a) Left hand rule b) Right hand rule c) we can not determine d) using both hands
 Cont...
7) Which of the following statements is true regarding charge and current in an electrical circuit?
a) Charge is the flow of electrons, while current is the accumulation of charge.
b) Charge and current are the same thing and can be used interchangeably.
c) Charge is a scalar quantity, while current is a vector quantity.
d) Charge is measured in amperes, while current is measured in coulombs.
8) Which of the following statements is true regarding voltage and power in an electrical circuit?
a) Voltage is the rate at which power is consumed, while power is the electrical potential difference.
b) Voltage and power are the same thing and can be used interchangeably.
c) Voltage is the electrical potential difference, while power is the rate at which energy is consumed or supplied.
d) Voltage is measured in watts, while power is measured in volts.

9) Which of the following statements is true regarding power and energy in an electrical system?

a) Power is the rate at which energy is consumed or supplied, while energy is the total amount of work done or transferred.

b) Power and energy are the same thing and can be used interchangeably.

c) Power is the total amount of work done or transferred, while energy is the rate at which work is done or transferred.

d) Power is measured in joules (J), while energy is measured in watts (W).