CHAPTER TWO

BASIC LAWS AND RULES

Introduction
The first chapter introduced basic concepts such as current, voltage, and power in an electric circuit.

To actually determine the values of these variables in a given circuit requires that we understand some
fundamental laws that govern electric circuits.
 These laws, known as Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws, form the foundation upon which electric circuit
analysis is built.
In this chapter, we will discuss these laws together with some techniques commonly applied in circuit design and
analysis.

These techniques include combining resistors in series or parallel, voltage division, current division, and delta-to-
wye and wye-to-delta transformations.
 Ohm’s Law:
 Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow of electric charge.
 This physical property, or ability to resist current, is known as resistance and is represented by the symbol R.
Ohm’s Law: About Resistors:
The unit of resistance is ohms( ).

A mathematical expression for resistance is

l
R (2.1)
A

l : The length of the conductor (meters )

A : The cross  sectional area (meters 2 )

 : The resistivity    m 
 Cont…
Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law: states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional to the current i flowing through the
resistor.

i(t) v (t) _
+
v (t) = R i(t)
R
(2.2)

i(t) _ v (t)
+ _ R i(t) (2.3)
v (t) =
R

 A resistor that obeys Ohm’s law is known as a linear resistor.

 A nonlinear resistor does not obey Ohm’s law. Its resistance varies with current.
 Cont...
Ohm’s Law: About Resistors:

We remember that resistance has units of ohms. The reciprocal of

resistance is conductance. At one time, conductance commonly had units of mhos (resistance
spelled backwards).
In recent years the units of conductance has been established as seimans (S).
Thus, we express the relationship between conductance and resistance as

1
G (S) (2.4)
R
 Cont...
Example 2.1 The essential component of a toaster is an electrical element (a resistor) that converts electrical energy
to heat energy. How much current is drawn by a toaster with resistance 12 at 110 V?
Solution:
Given R=12, V=110V
=9.167A
Example 2.3

Nodes, Branches, and Loops

a) Nodes: A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.

b) Branch: A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source, current source or a resistor.
 Cont...

c) Loop: A loop is any closed path in a circuit

A loop is said to be independent if it contains at least one branch which is not a part of any other independent
loop.
Independent loops or paths result in independent sets of equations.
A network with ‘b’ branches, ‘n’ nodes, and ‘l’ independent loops will satisfy the fundamental theorem of
network topology:

 Two or more elements are in series if they exclusively share a single node and consequently carry the same current.
 Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nodes and consequently have the same voltage
across them.

The circuit in fig. 2.2 has three (3) node, five (5) branches and three (3) independent loops
 Kirchhoff’s laws
There are two Kirchhoff’s law, these are:
i) Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL): states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node is zero.

By this law current entering a node may be regarded as positive, while currents leaving the node may be taken as
negative or vice versa.

Figure 2. 3 Currents at a node illustrating KCL

Consider the node in Figure-2.3. Applying KCL gives

i1 + (−i2) + i3 + i4 + (−i5) = 0

since currents i1, i3, and i4 are entering the node, while currents i2 and i5 are leaving it. By rearranging the terms,
we get i1 + i3 + i4 = i2 + i5
 Cont…
Example 2.4

ii. Kirchhoff’s Voltage law (KVL): states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path (or loop) is zero.
To illustrate KVL, consider the circuit in Figure-2.4.

The sign on each voltage is the polarity of the terminal encountered first as we travel around the loop.

Thus, KVL yields −v1 + v2 + v3 − v4 + v5 = 0

Rearranging terms gives v2 + v3 + v5 = v1 + v4

 Cont...
Example 2.7

Series, Parallel and Series-Parallel circuits

As we discussed earlier, circuit is the interconnection of electrical elements, as in your case we will see three types of
circuits, these are Series, Parallel and Series-Parallel circuits
1. Series circuits
Two or more elements are in series if they are cascaded or connected sequentially and consequently carry the same current.
Two elements are in series if
1. They have only one terminal in common (i.e., one lead of one is connected to only one lead of the other).
 Cont…
2. The common point between the two elements is not connected to another current-carrying element
3. The current is the same through series elements.

Figure 2. 5 Series circuit

Series Resistors and Voltage Division
Consider two resistors are in series as shown in figure-2.5. The two resistors are in series, since the same current i flows in
both of them,

Figure 2. 6 A single-loop circuit with two resistors in series.

 Cont…
Applying Ohm’s law to each of the resistors, we obtain:
v1 = iR1, v2 = iR2 ........................................................(1)
apply KVL to the loop (moving in the clockwise direction), we have
−v + v1 + v2 = 0................................................................................... (2)
Combining Eq. (1) and (2), we get
v = v1 + v2 = i(R1 + R2) ........................................................................(3)
Eq. (3) can be written as
v = iReq................................................................................................... (4)
Implying that the two resistors can be replaced by an equivalent resistor Req; that is,
Req = R1 + R2................................................................................................................................................................... (5)

For N resistors in series then, Figure 2. 7 Equivalent circuit of the Figure. 2.6 circuit
 Cont…
The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series is the sum of the individual resistances
To determine the voltage across each resistor in Fig. 2.7, we substitute Eq. (3) into Eq. (1) and obtain

 Notice that the source voltage v is divided among the resistors in direct proportion to their resistances; the larger the
resistance, the larger the voltage drop. This is called the principle of voltage division.
 In general, if a voltage divider has N resistors (R1, R2 … RN) in series with the source voltage v, the nth resistor (Rn) will have
a voltage drop of

1.Parallel circuits
Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nodes and consequently have the same
voltage across them.
Two elements are in parallel if:
1) Two elements, branches, or networks are in parallel if they have two points in common.
2) The voltage is the same across parallel elements
 Cont…

Figure 2. 8 Parallel elements

In Fig. 2.8, elements 1 and 2 have terminals a and b in common; they are therefore in parallel.
Parallel Resistors and Current Division
Consider the circuit in Fig. 2.9, where two resistors are connected in parallel and therefore have the same voltage across them:

From Ohm’s law,

v = i1R1 = i2R2............................................................................ (6)

Or = i1 , = i2 ......................................................................(7)
 Cont…
Applying KCL at node a gives the total current i as
i = i1 + i2...................................................................................... (8)
Substituting Eq. (7) into Eq. (8), we get
i = + = v ( + ) = ................................................(9)
Where Req is the equivalent resistance of the resistors in parallel:
= + or ............................................... (10)

Figure 2. 10 Equivalent circuit to Figure 2.9

 The equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the product of their resistances divided by their sum.
 General case of a circuit with N resistors in parallel. The equivalent resistance is:
 Cont…
The equivalent conductance for N resistors in parallel is:

We know that the equivalent resistor has the same voltage, or

(11)

Combining Eq. (7) and (11) results in

Which shows that the total current i is shared by the resistors in inverse proportion to their resistances.
This is known as the principle of current division.

Thus, in general, if a current divider has N conductors (G1, G2….. GN) in parallel with the source current i, the nth conductor
(Gn) will have current:
 Series-Parallel circuits
Series-parallel networks are networks that contain both series and parallel circuit configurations
Example: 2.8
 Series and parallel Capacitors
A capacitor is a passive element designed to store energy in its electric field.
We know from resistive circuits that the series-parallel combination is a powerful tool for reducing circuits.
This technique can be extended to series-parallel connections of capacitors, which are sometimes encountered.
Parallel Connection of Capacitors
In order to obtain the equivalent capacitor of N capacitors in parallel, consider the circuit in Fig. 2.11. The equivalent circuit
is:

Figure 2. 11 Parallel connected N capacitors

Note that the capacitors have the same voltage across them. Applying KCL to Fig. 2.11,
 Series Connection of Capacitors
In order to obtain the equivalent capacitor of N capacitors in series, consider the circuit in Fig. 2.12. The
equivalent circuit is:

Figure 2. 12 N capacitors connected in series

Applying KVL to the loop in Fig. 2.12,
 Series and parallel Inductors
An inductor is a passive element designed to store energy in its magnetic field. Any conductor of electric current
has inductive properties and may be regarded as an inductor.

But in order to enhance the inductive effect, a practical inductor is usually formed into a cylindrical coil with
many turns of conducting wire.

Now we need to know how to find the equivalent inductance of a series-connected or parallel-connected set of
inductors found in practical circuits.
Series Connection of Inductors
Consider a series connection of N inductors, as shown in Fig.2.13.

Figure 2. 13 N Inductors connected in series

Applying KVL to the loop to Fig. 2.13,

 Parallel Connection of Inductors
We now consider a parallel connection of N inductors, as shown in Fig.2.14

Figure 2. 14 N Inductors connected in parallel

Inductors have the same voltage across them. Using KCL
 Cont…
Examples: 2.12
Examples: 2.13
 Summery Questions
1) What ohms law states?
a) The voltage is directly proportional with current
b) The current is directly proportional to the resistance
c) The voltage is inversely proportional to the current
d) a&c
2) From ohms law if the length of the conductor increases what will happen on the resistance of the conductor?
e) Decrease b) Increase c) constant d) we can not determine
3) What Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states?
f) The algebraic sum of currents entering a node and leaving the node is equal.
g) The algebraic sum of currents entering a node is to zero.
h) The algebraic sum of currents entering a node and leaving the node is no equal.
i) a&b
4) The resistivity does not change if
(a) the material is changed
(b) the temperature is changed
(c) the shape of the resistor is changed
(d) both material and temperature are changed
 Cont…
5) Two resistors of resistance 2 Ω and 4 Ω when connected to a battery will have
(a) same current flowing through them when connected in parallel
(b) same current flowing through them when connected in series
(c) same potential difference across them when connected in series
(d) different potential difference across them when connected in parallel
6) In a flashlight, a battery provides a total of 3.0 volts to a bulb. If the flashlight bulb has an operating resistance
of 5.0 ohms, the current through the bulb is:
a) 0.30 A b) 0.60 A c) 1.5 A d) 1.7 A
7) Three resistance of 30 Ω ,15 Ω and 5 Ω are connected in parallel their combined resistance will be:
a) Greater than 30 Ω b) between 30 Ω to15 Ω c) between 15 Ω to 5 Ω d) Less than 5 Ω