PSY 1101 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

LECTURE 3 & 4
RESEARCH METHODS/ETHICS IN
PSYCHOLOGY
 THE SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE

Research methods in psychology is characterized

by the scientific attitude. This is further
characterized by skepticism, open minded humility
and a critical attitude.
Skepticism is the attitude of questioning
everything. Doubting and retesting continuously.
 Open minded humility is about expecting that
what you held as true can be questioned and
proved wrong.
 SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE
CRITICAL THINKING is an attitude that
Examines assumptions
 Discerns hidden values
Evaluates evidence
 Assesses conclusions
 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The scientific method is a self correcting process
for asking questions and observing answers
It starts with a hunch
Builds a theory
The theory generates a hypothesis
Collects and analysis data
Confirms or modifies the theory
 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Theory
 Psychological theories explain the long-term
consequences of human behavior and provide robust
evidence-based clarifications as to why people believe,
behave, and react how they do. These theories discuss
factors of personality, early experiences, and
interpersonal relations.
 You have a hunch that self esteem is related to
depression because people with low self esteem hate
themselves and others and have many automatic
negative thoughts
 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Hypothesis
A hypothesis states your predictions about what
your research will find.
There is a significant relationship between low
self esteem and depression
 You then administer two tests
Self esteem test
Depression test
Analyze the relationships and make conclusions
QUANTATITIVE RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY

There are three main types of research designs:

Descriptive
Correlational
Experimental.
 DESCRIPTIVE METHODS
Descriptive research methods describe
situations.
Although they do not determine cause and
effect Descriptive approaches seeks to
describe the current status of a variable or
phenomenon.
 TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE METHODS
There are three main types of descriptive
methods:
Observational methods
Case-study methods
 Survey methods.
 THE OBSERVATIONAL METHOD
With the observational method (sometimes
referred to as field observation) animal and
human behavior is closely observed.
There are two main categories of the
observational method — naturalistic
observation and laboratory observation.
 OBSERVATIONAL METHODS
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
The biggest advantage of the naturalistic
method of research is that researchers view
participants in their natural environments.
This leads to greater ecological validity than
laboratory observation, proponents say.
 THE OBSERVATIONAL METHOD
Ecological validity refers to the extent to
which research can be used in real-life
situations.
Proponents of laboratory observation often
suggest that due to more control in the
laboratory, the results found when using
laboratory observation are more meaningful
than those obtained with naturalistic
observation.
 OBSERVATIONAL METHODS
LABORATORY OBSERVATION
Laboratory observations are usually less time-
consuming and cheaper than naturalistic
observations. Of course, both naturalistic and
laboratory observation are important in regard
to the advancement of scientific knowledge.
 OBSERVATION
A classic example of naturalistic observation can
be found in many experimental psychology
courses. In one study, a student researcher
stands on a corner with a stop sign. He or she is
holding a pad of paper or a similar recording
device. The student notes whether passing
drivers completely stop at the sign.
 OBSERVATION
The second phase of the observation takes
place on the same corner, except this time the
student is hidden.
Equal time is given to both sections of the
study.
In general, people will make sure to come to a
complete stop when they know they are being
observed.
 THE CASE STUDY METHOD
CASE STUDY
Case study research involves an in-depth
study of an individual or group of individuals.
Case studies often lead to testable hypotheses
and allow us to study rare phenomena.
 CASE STUDY
The case of Anna O
The case of Hans
The case of Emma

Studies on Hysteria (Freud and Breuer, 1895),

a joint work published in 1895 by Freud and
his friend, Josef Breuer, a fellow Austrian
physician.
 THE CASE STUDY METHOD
There are two serious problems with case studies
— expectancy effects and atypical individuals.
Expectancy effects include the experimenter’s
underlying biases that might affect the actions
taken while conducting research.
 These biases can lead to misrepresenting
participants’ descriptions.
 Describing atypical individuals may lead to poor
generalizations and detract from external validity.
 THE SURVEY METHOD
SURVEY METHOD
 In survey method research, participants answer
questions administered through interviews or
questionnaires.
 After participants answer the questions, researchers
describe the responses given. In order for the survey
to be both reliable and valid it is important that the
questions are constructed properly.
 Questions should be written so they are clear and
easy to comprehend.
 THE SURVEY METHOD
Open-ended questions allow for a greater
variety of responses from participants but are
difficult to analyze statistically because the
data must be coded or reduced in some
manner.
 THE SURVEY METHOD
Closed-ended questions are easy to analyze
statistically, but they seriously limit the
responses that participants can give. Many
researchers prefer to use a Likert-type scale
because it’s very easy to analyze statistically.
 CORRELATION RESEARCH METHODS

CORRELATIONAL METHOD
In general, a correlational study is a quantitative
method of research in which you have 2 or more
variables from the same group of subjects, &
you are trying to determine if there is a
relationship between the 2 variables (a
similarity between them.
 POSITIVE CORRELATION

POSITIVE CORRELATION
Both variables move in the same direction. In
other words, as one variable increases, the
other variable also increases. As one variable
decreases, the other variable also decreases.
i.e., years of education and yearly salary are
positively correlated
 NEGATIVE CORRELATION
NEGATIVE CORRELATION
The variables move in opposite directions. As
one variable increases, the other variable
decreases. As one variable decreases, the other
variable increases. i.e., hours spent sleeping and
hours spent awake are negatively correlated.
 REGRESSION
Regression analysis is a quantitative research
method which is used when the study involves
modelling and analyzing several variables, where
the relationship includes a dependent variable
and one or more independent variables.
 THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Experimental Method. The prime method of
inquiry in science is the experiment. The key
features are control over variables, careful
measurement, and establishing cause and effect
relationships. An experiment is an investigation
in which a hypothesis is scientifically tested.
 THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
The experimental method involves
manipulating one variable to determine if
changes in one variable cause changes in
another variable. This method relies on
controlled methods, random assignment and
the manipulation of variables to test a
hypothesis.
 THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Lab experiments are very common in
psychology because they allow experimenters
more control over the variables. These
experiments can also be easier for other
researchers to replicate. The problem, of
course, is that what takes place in a lab is not
always identical to what takes place in the real
world.
 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
FIELD EXPERIMENTS
For example, let's imagine that a social
psychologist is interested in researching
prosocial behavior. The experimenter might
have a person pretend to faint and observe to
see how long it takes onlookers to respond. This
type of experiment can be a great way to see
behavior in action in realistic settings.
CONCEPTS IN EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

The independent variable is the treatment

that the experimenter manipulates. This
variable is assumed to cause some type of
effect on another variable. If a researcher was
investigating how sleep influences test scores,
the amount of sleep an individual gets would
be the independent variable.
CONCEPTS IN EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

The dependent variable is the effect that the

experimenter is measuring. In our previous
example, the test scores would be the
dependent variable.
CONCEPTS IN EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Psychologists, like other scientists, utilize the

scientific method when conducting an
experiment. The scientific method is a set of
procedures and principles that guide how
scientists develop research questions, collect
data and come to conclusions.
CONCEPTS IN EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

The four basic steps of the process are:

Forming a Hypothesis
Designing a Study and Collecting Data
Analyzing the Data and Reaching Conclusions
Sharing the Findings
 RESEARCH AND ETHICS
Ethics refers to the correct rules of conduct
necessary when carrying out research. We have
a moral responsibility to protect research
participants from harm. However important the
issue under investigation psychologists need to
remember that they have a duty to respect the
rights and dignity of research participants.
 INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
Discuss intellectual property frankly
 The best way to avoid disagreements about
who should get credit and in what order is to
talk about these issues at the beginning of a
working relationship, even though many
people often feel uncomfortable about such
topics.
 MULTIPLE ROLES
 Be conscious of multiple roles
APA's Ethics Code says psychologists should
avoid relationships that could reasonably impair
their professional performance or could exploit
or harm others. But it also notes that many
kinds of multiple relationships aren't unethical--
as long as they're not reasonably expected to
have adverse effects.
TEACHER COUNSELLOR FOR EXAMPLE
 MULTIPLE ROLES
That notwithstanding, psychologists should
think carefully before entering into multiple
relationships with any person or group, such
as recruiting students or clients as participants
in research studies or investigating the
effectiveness of a product of a company
whose stock they own.
 MULTIPLE ROLES
For example, when recruiting students from
your Psychology 101 course to participate in
an experiment, be sure to make clear that
participation is voluntary. If participation is a
course requirement, be sure to note that in
the class syllabus, and ensure that
participation has educative value by,
 INFORMED CONSENT
 providing a thorough debriefing to enhance
subjects understanding of the study. Subjects
should be given equitable alternatives to
participating in research.
 INFORMED CONSENT
Follow informed-consent rules
When done properly, the consent process
ensures that individuals are voluntarily
participating in the research with full
knowledge of relevant risks and benefits.
APA's Ethics Code mandates that psychologists
who conduct research should inform
participants about:
 INFORMED CONSENT
The purpose of the research, expected duration
and procedures.
Participants' rights to decline to participate and
to withdraw from the research once it has
started, as well as the anticipated
consequences of doing so.
Reasonably foreseeable factors that may
influence their willingness to participate, such
as potential risks, discomfort or adverse effects.
 INFORMED CONSENT
Any prospective research benefits.
Limits of confidentiality, such as data coding,
disposal, sharing and archiving, and when
confidentiality must be broken.
Incentives for participation.
Who participants can contact with questions