Powerplant 2

Operating Principles
Energy Transformation

 Like the piston engine, a gas turbine engine is a form of

heat engine that converts the chemical energy of fuel into
heat energy. Once converted, the heat energy causes an
increase in gas pressure that is converted into kinetic
energy in the form of a high velocity stream of air.
 The kinetic energy is then converted into mechanical energy
when the expanding gases rotate a series of turbine wheels
that drive a compressor and accessories.
 In the case of turboprop or turboshaft engines, the
expanding gases may also drive a second power turbine
which drives a propeller or gearbox.
Energy Transformation Cycle

 The energy transformation cycle in a gas turbine engine is known

as the Brayton cycle or constant pressure cycle. The Brayton cycle
is similar to the four-stroke cycle in that an intake, compression,
combustion, and exhaust event occur in both cycles.
 However, unlike a piston engine, all four events happen
simultaneously and continuously in a gas turbine engine. This
gives the gas turbine engine the unique ability to produce power
continuously.
 There is a downside, however, in that a gas turbine engine must
burn a great deal of fuel to support the continuous production of
power.
In a gas turbine engine, air is taken in through an air inlet, compressed in
the compressor, mixed with fuel and ignited in the combustors, then
exhausted through the turbines and exhaust nozzle. This allows a gas
turbine engine to perform the same functions as a cylinder and piston in
a reciprocating engine except that, in a turbine engine, the events
happen continuously.
Energy Transformation Cycle

 The continuous intake event in a gas turbine engine draws ambient

air into the engine through an inlet duct to the first compressor
stage. Each compressor stage then compresses the air to increase
static air pressure.
 In the combustor, fuel is sprayed into the incoming airflow and
ignited, resulting in continuous combustion. The resulting release of
heat energy increases the air's volume while maintaining a relatively
constant pressure.
 When the exhaust air leaves the combustion chamber, it passes
through the turbine where static air pressure drops and air volume
continues to increase. In addition, since there is little resistance to
the flow of expanding gases, gas velocity increases dramatically.
This chart illustrates the changes in pressure and volume during turbine
engine operation. Point (A) represents the condition of the air just before
it enters the compressor. Once in the compressor, air pressure increases
and volume decreases. Point (B) represents the pressure and volume of
the air as it leaves the compressor. In the combustion section (point C)
heat energy is added to the air mass causing the air to expand in volume
with little or no change in pressure. Once heated, the air expands and
loses pressure as it flows through the turbine section (point D).
Producing Thrust

 A gas turbine engine produces thrust based on Newton's third law of motion which
states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. In a turbojet
engine, the acceleration of a mass of air by the engine is the action while forward
movement is the reaction.
 As air passes through a gas turbine engine its velocity and pressure must change in
order to produce thrust. For example, in the compressor section, static air pressure
must be increased while velocity remains relatively constant.
 In addition, after combustion, gas velocity must be increased dramatically to rotate
the turbine. The most common way of inducing a velocity or pressure change is
through the application of Bernoulli's principle. Bernoulli's principle states that
when a fluid or gas is supplied at a constant flow rate through a duct, the sum of
the potential, or pressure energy, and kinetic, or velocity energy, is constant.
 In other words, as air velocity increases, air pressure decreases and as air velocity
decreases, air pressure increases.
When air passes through a diverging
duct, air velocity decreases while air
pressure and temperature increase.
By the same token, when a quantity
of air passes through a converging
duct, air velocity increases while air
pressure and temperature decrease.
Thrust Calculations

 A jet engine produces thrust by This relationship is expressed by the

accelerating an airmass to a velocity formula:
higher than that of the incoming air. The
thrust, in turn, becomes the propelling F=MxA
force which moves an aircraft.
 Newton's second law of motion states that Where:
F = force
force is proportional to the product of
M = mass
mass and acceleration. Furthermore, the
A = acceleration
acceleration produced when a given force
acts on a mass is directly proportional to
the force and is inversely proportional to
the mass.
Thrust Calculations

 To calculate the acceleration of a given air

mass through a gas turbine engine, you must
know the difference between the speed of
the exiting jet exhaust and the intake air. In
addition, once the acceleration is known, it Where:
must be compared to a constant.
F = engine thrust in pounds
 The most widely used constant when
discussing acceleration is the gravitational Ms = mass airflow through the engine
constant. the acceleration of gravity is 32.2
V2 = air velocity at the exhaust
feet per second per second, or 32.2 feet per
second2 Va = forward velocity of the engine
g = acceleration of gravity which is 32.2 feet per
second2
Example

 Determine the amount of gross thrust produced

by a turbojet powered aircraft at rest on the
end of a runway with the engines producing
takeoff thrust. The takeoff power setting moves
50 pounds of air through one of the engines
every second and produces an exhaust velocity,
V2, of 1,300 feet per second.
Given:
Ms = 50 pounds per second = 2,018.6 pounds
Va = 0 feet per second
V2 = 1,300 feet per second
g = 32.2 feet per second, per second32.2 ft./sec.2
Example

 Consider the same aircraft in the previous example flying at 500 miles per hour (734 feet per
second). Its net thrust can be calculated using the basic formula, as follows:
Given:
Ms = 50 pounds per second
Va = 734 feet per second
V2 = 1,300 feet per second
g = 32.2 feet per second, per second32.2 ft./sec.2

Solution:
F=M(V2-V1)/g=50(1300-734)/32.2
= 878.9 pounds net thrust
Thrust Calculations

 It should be easy to see from this formula that the net thrust
produced by a gas turbine engine can be increased by two methods:
first, by increasing the mass flow of air through the engine, and
second, by increasing the exhaust velocity.
 If the velocity of a turbojet engine remains constant with respect to
the aircraft, exhaust thrust decreases if the speed of the aircraft is
increased.
 This is because Va increases in value as the speed of the aircraft
increases. This does not present a serious problem, however,
because as aircraft speed increases, more air enters the engine
resulting in an increase in exhaust velocity. The resultant net thrust
is almost constant with increases in airspeed.
Thermal Efficiency

 A turbine engine's thermal efficiency is the ratio of the actual

power an engine produces divided by the thermal energy in the
fuel consumed. At cruise, a large gas turbine engine with a 30:1
compression ratio can operate with a thermal efficiency as high
as 50 percent.
 In comparison, the thermal efficiency of a typical reciprocating
engine is between 30 and 40 percent.
 There are three primary factors which determine the thermal
efficiency of a gas turbine engine. They are the turbine inlet
temperature, the compression ratio, and the component
efficiencies of the compressor and turbine.
Thermal Efficiency

 the higher a gas turbine engine

raises the temperature of the
incoming air, the more thrust the
engine can produce. The primary
limiting factor to increasing the
temperature of the air is the
amount of heat the turbine section
can withstand.
Turbine inlet temperature (TIT) readings
 Therefore, if the turbine inlet between 2,500 and 3,000 degrees
Fahrenheit with compression ratios near
temperature (TIT) limits on a given 32:1 give 50 percent or better thermal
efficiencies.
engine can be increased, higher
thermal efficiencies will result.
Thermal Efficiency

 The more a gas turbine engine compresses the incoming air, the
more thrust the engine can produce. The reason for this is that
engines with high compression ratios force more air into the
engine, allowing more heat energy from the burning fuel to be
transferred to the internal airflow.
 Anytime there is an increase in the amount of heat energy
transferred from the fuel to the air, an engine's thermal efficiency
also increases.
 High compressor and turbine efficiencies in a gas turbine engine
promote a higher thermal efficiency. The reason for this is that
compressor and turbine efficiency directly impact the compression
ratio of a given engine, which, in turn, has a direct impact on
thermal efficiency.
Compressor and turbine efficiency
near 90 percent is necessary to
reach thermal efficiencies above
20 per-cent.
Factors Affecting Thrust

 The amount of thrust a given engine is capable of producing

is affected by a number of environmental, design, and
operational factors. For example, temperature, altitude,
and airspeed directly affect inlet air density and
consequently, thrust.
 The combination of these three variables is sometimes
represented by a single variable, called stagnation density.
Operating rpm and the efficiency of a given fan design are
additional parameters that directly determine the amount
of thrust an engine produces.
Temperature

 The air mass flowing through a turbine engine is the working fluid that the
engine uses to produce thrust. Furthermore, the more dense the air passing
through an engine is, the more thrust the engine can produce.
 Air density is inversely related to temperature. In other words, as outside air
temperature (OAT) increases, air density decreases. Anytime the density of the
air entering a gas turbine engine decreases, engine thrust also decreases.
 Thrust output improves with a reduction in outside air temperature. Engine
manufacturers base their thrust calculations for any given engine on a
standard temperature of 59 degrees Fahrenheit or 15 degrees Celsius.
 This provides a reference point to use when calculating thrust and
compensating for temperature variations. In the field, all performance
calculations must be adjusted for non-standard temperatures.
 Air density decreases as temperature rises, and
the lower the density of the air, the less thrust
an engine can produce.
 To counteract the detrimental effects of hot
weather on the amount of thrust an engine can
produce, some engines are fitted with a thrust
augmentation system.
 In a water injection thrust augmentation system,
water, or a mixture of water and alcohol is
injected directly into the compressor inlet or
into the combustion chamber.
 Water injection accomplishes several things; it
cools the air-mass and allows more fuel to be
burned without exceeding turbine inlet
temperature limits, and it maintains the same
air pressure in the engine because water
molecules are added to the airmass.
Altitude

 As altitude increases, air pressure drops. Air at standard temperature

at sea level exerts a pressure of 14.69 pounds per square inch.
However, this pressure decreases as the altitude increases.
 Temperature, like ambient air pressure, also decreases as altitude
increases. Normally, decreasing temperatures result in an increase in
air density, leading some to think that increases in altitude result in
higher air density. The opposite, however, is true because the pressure
losses experienced when climbing has a greater effect on air density
than decreasing temperatures.
 In other words, the temperature lapse rate is less than the pressure
lapse rate. Therefore, as an aircraft climbs, engine performance is
impacted by decreasing air density.
Air density decreases with
altitude, and, therefore, as an
aircraft climbs, engine thrust
decreases.
Airspeed

 As forward airspeed increases, the airmass acceleration in the

engine decreases, so less thrust is produced. However, as the
aircraft speeds up, more air is forced into the engine.
 This is known as ram effect and results in an increase in air
pressure within an engine which, in turn, produces more thrust.
Therefore, increasing aircraft speed causes two opposing trends
to occur; a decrease in thrust due to the reduction in airmass
acceleration and an increase in thrust due to ram effect.
 The net effect on thrust is found by subtracting the lost thrust
due to the reduction in airmass acceleration from the increase in
thrust realized from ram effect. The result is referred to as ram
recovery.
As airspeed increases, the amount an
engine can accelerate a given airmass
decreases. However, ram effect becomes
more pronounced with increases in air-
speed. The resultant effect, or ram
recovery, produces a slight increase in
engine thrust.
Engine RPM

 Early turbojet engines had somewhat of a linear relationship between

compressor rpm and engine thrust. In other words, the faster the compressor
rpm, the more thrust produced.
 Because of this, engine power output on these engines could be set using an
rpm gauge. However, modern turbo-fan engines with dual spool compressors
have a non-linear relationship between compressor rpm and thrust produced.
 In fact, at low engine speeds, large increases in rpm produce relatively small
increases in thrust and at high engine speeds, a small increase in rpm
produces a large increase in thrust.
 Therefore, power in most mod-ern gas turbine engines is set using an engine
pressure ratio (EPR) indicating system since thrust and EPR have a more
proportional relationship than thrust and rpm.
Engine RPM

 Compressor aerodynamics limit engine rpm because

compressor efficiency begins to drop when the blade tips
reach the speed of sound.
 Therefore, efficient compressor design requires engine
operation at a speed that does not subject the compressor
blades to the severe shock waves produced by supersonic
blade speeds.
Fan Efficiency

 Turbofan engines have replaced turbojet engines on most

transport and business jet aircraft. The turbofan engine
design is quieter and much more fuel efficient.
 As an example, if a turbojet and a turbofan engine have
the same rated thrust, the turbofan engine will burn less
fuel because of the greater propulsive efficiency of the
fan. Therefore, the more efficient the fan is, the more
thrust the engine can produce.