PRACTICAL

RESEARCH
1
MARIA CECILIA V. LORISTO
 Data Collection in Qualitative Research
 What I Need to Know
After identifying the sample and the amount of time and size
you would consider in your study which is explained in Module 5,
your next step is to get some ideas on how you are going to collect
data.
In this module, you will discover methods on how to collect data. As
an output, you will be tasked to write and present a written
research methodology based on your chosen topic in your previous
modules.
Learning Competencies
At the end of this module, you are expected to
1. plan data collection, data gathering instrument, and
analysis procedures;
2. b. present a written research methodology;
3. c. collect data through observation and interview; and
4. d. appreciate the process of data collection.
 What is It
After you have identified the sample of your study, the next step
you are going to take is the process of collecting data. As discussed in the
paper of Whitehead (2016), data collection can take the form of ‘direct
data’ or ‘indirect data’.
Direct data include recordable spoken or written words and also
observable body language, actions, and interactions. Here, the
interactions may be human-to-human or human responses to inanimate
objects—such as a haemodialysis machine. Whatever can be observed or
linked is considered to be potential or actual data (Issacs, 2014). This will
occur when considering the thoughts, feelings, experiences, meaning of
experience, responses, actions, interactions, language, and processes of
individuals and groups within their social and/or cultural setting
(Babbie, 2014).
 What is It
Indirect data are generated, firsthand, by someone or
something else, such as with documents or photographs reporting
an event or an artistic rendition of an event or experience (e.g.,
novels, songs, paintings, poems, photographs). Direct data, though,
are by far the most common form in qualitative research.
Depending on the types of data required for a qualitative
study, various methods of collecting data can be used singularly or
in combination to obtain direct data. For direct data, these methods
may include interview, observation, open-ended questionnaire,
journaling (diary accounts) or ‘think aloud’ sessions.
 What is It
Direct data can be collected by the participant involved in a
study at the request of the researcher (e.g., through writing a
personal journal or diary) and then provided to the researcher.
Most commonly, however, qualitative approaches acquire data
primarily through interpersonal contact with participants
(usually an interview) or, secondly, through the presence of the
researcher in proximity to pertinent events (usually observation)
(Babbie, 2014). This is unlike quantitative research where,
frequently, interpersonal contact is deliberately limited with
participants or events. In quite a few instances, researchers will
use more than one technique to collect data.
 What is It
 Interviews
Interviews are viewed as the prime method for
qualitative data collection, which also represent the most
common method for gathering qualitative data in nursing-
related research (Issacs 2014). Spoken ‘narrative’ is the
foundation of most qualitative data, wherein narrative is
most often gained through a direct encounter between the
researcher and the participant (or several participants) using
in-depth interviews or focus group interviews.
 What is It
 Interviews
Interviews can be conducted by telephone, email and, more
recently, through social media conversations and micro-
blogging (e.g., Twitter, Facebook, Tumblr).
Interviews in qualitative research may be unstructured,
semi-structured, or occasionally structured. With unstructured
interviews, neither the specific questions to be asked nor the
range or type of possible answers are pre-determined. The
interviews are designed to be informal and conversational with
the aim of encouraging participants to express themselves in a
naturally unfolding manner.
 What is It
 Interviews
Unstructured interviews tend to start with single broad
questions, such as ‘what is your experience of…’ The researcher,
however, has an idea in mind of the general issues to be covered
and may use a topic list as a reminder.
Semi-structured interviews use an interview guide to
provide a set of questions for discussion. The questions are set
to ensure that the research aims/questions are covered.
However, there is freedom to pose any questions in any order,
following tangents or seeking clarification of previous answers
or elaboration of responses.
 What is It
 Interviews
Semi-structured interviews steer the interview yet are flexible
enough to allow the interviewer to follow leads and areas of
interest.
Structured interviews in qualitative research are not
commonly conducted. Structured interviews follow a list of set
questions, usually asked in a certain order—but these questions are
still open-ended; that is, usually commencing with words like ‘how’,
‘why’, ‘where’, or ‘when’. This distinguishes them from structured
quantitative interviews, which usually only ask closed-ended
questions—such as ‘how many’ to illicit numerical data.
 What is It
 Conducting interviews
The structure and conduct of interviews are important;
both factors will impact on the quality of the data generated.
Conducting interviews can be complex and demanding and
requires attention to process (Peters & Halcomb 2015). Many
researchers perform ‘dry or dummy runs’ with peers and/or
colleagues as a form of piloting the interview schedule and
interview techniques. There are a number of considerations for
all researchers conducting any type of interview to enhance the
experience and the quality of data collected.
 What is It
 Conducting interviews
At the start of the interview, it is important that the ‘rules of
engagement’ are established early on—such as generating and
maintaining a warm and non-judgmental manner toward the
participant/s, asking questions in a balanced, unbiased, non-
threatening, sensitive, and clear way and choosing a setting for
the interview that is most appropriate to exploring the area of
study (e.g., private setting if personal questions will be asked).
The majority of interviews conducted in qualitative research are
audio-recorded or, less commonly, video-recorded.
 What is It
 Conducting interviews
Privacy and comfort are important, and the researcher
should minimize the likelihood of disruption as much as
possible by, for example, ensuring that all items required are
available (recording equipment, tapes, consent forms,
participant information sheets, drinks, and tissues). Researchers
should take active steps, such as posting ‘do not disturb’ signs
and disabling telephone or pager devices. The issues of
confidentiality and anonymity should be discussed with the
participant before the interview is conducted, and questions are
encouraged and answered.
 What is It
 Conducting interviews
Qualitative interviews should allow the interviewee to speak
freely and offer in-depth and lengthy responses through techniques
used singularly or in combination. Possible techniques include the
following:
• Funnelling—beginning the interview with general and broad (non-
threatening) opening questions and then narrowing down to topic
specifics as the interview progresses.
• Probing—eliciting further details or seeking clarification. Price
(2002) explained an innovative probing technique called ‘laddered
questions. Appropriate questions are asked in a series leading from
the least intrusive questions to the most intrusive.
 What is It
 Conducting interviews
This technique identifies classifications of questions; questions
about ‘actions’ are deemed to be the least invasive, through to
questions about ‘philosophy’ (feelings/values/beliefs) as the
most invasive. Storytelling, as another technique, involves
asking questions in a manner which encourages storytelling and
more elaborate answers; for example, ‘Tell me about when you
last experienced…’
• Paraphrasing—repeating what the participant has said,
without changing the meaning of what has been said; assisting
understanding and clarity; and acting as a further prompt.
 What is
It
 Focus group interviews
Focus groups are interviews conducted in a group setting and
can be used in a number of ways to generate data. Focus groups can
be conducted to explore, develop, and refine initial research
questions and interview schedules; as a form of data collection in
their own right or as a way of exploring the resonance of findings
generated through interviews (or another form of data collection).
Focus groups use interview schedules, but these differ in scope,
nature, and intention from other research interviews. This is
because of the unique nature of group dynamics and insights gained
from interaction between participants.
 What is
It
 Focus group interviews
Focus groups offer a collective set of values, experiences,
and observations of participants that are later interpreted in
context. Sometimes, group ‘synergy’ or consensus
(agreement) on issues occurs, but this is not always the case.
If a series of focus groups are scheduled, initial interviews
usually identify broad issues and perspectives related to the
focus of the study, while subsequent interviews seek to
prioritize and narrow down generated issues.
 What is
It
 Benefits of focus group interviews
The main benefits of this method of data collection are the
generation of data from multiple participants and often a larger sample
size compared to individual interview studies. Another advantage is that,
for those who may find one-to-one interviews intimidating, the group
setting may be more appealing, and provide access to participants who
may not participate otherwise (Liamputtong, 2010). Focus groups offer
supportive group interactions as each member is encouraged to identify,
describe, analyze, and resolve issues (Issacs, 2014) and are particularly
valuable in obtaining different perspectives on the same topic. Focus
group interviews are usually more economical to conduct than
individual interviews.
 What is It
 Observation
Observational methods are commonly used in
qualitative research designs and vary between methods.
Observation is the process of observing the daily life and
behaviors of participants in their natural setting to record
aspects such as social position and function, or actions and
interactions. Qualitative observation is traditionally adopted
by ethnographers (De Chesnay, 2014), but can be used in
other qualitative approaches.
 What is It
 Observation
In qualitative research, observation methods are mostly
unstructured. However, some studies will use more
structured observation. In unstructured observation, the
researcher enters the ‘field’ with no predetermined schedule
as to what they may or may not see or hear. Using this
approach requires an ‘observation protocol’ to record the
same information collected during observations by the data
collectors.
 What is It
 Process of observation
Methods of observation range across a continuum from
participation to observation where four distinct roles of
participation and observation can be identified:
Complete Participant
• Researcher is immersed in group/community (complete
intervention).
• Research is usually concealed (covert).
Participant as Observer
• Researcher steps into and out of groups/community
(intervention).
 What is It
 Process of observation
• Research is known (open).

Observer as Participant
• Researcher mainly observes but occasionally enters field
(brief intervention).
• Research is known (open).

Complete Observer
• Researcher does not participate.
• Research is either known (open) or concealed (covert).
 What is It
 Benefits of observation
De Chesnay (2014) suggested that observation has several
advantages in qualitative research:
‘capturing data in more natural circumstances’,
‘capturing the whole social setting and context of the
environment in which people function’, and
‘informing about influences of the immediate physical
environment’.
Depending on the observation method used, there is
opportunity to interact with participants while gaining rich data
and perspectives related to participants’ values and experiences.
LET’S TRY
Directions: Do the following activity on your activity paper.
1. Describe each picture below.
2. How are you going to relate each picture to this module’s
topic which is data collection? Justify your answer.
Directions: Do the following activity on your activity paper.
1. Describe each picture below.
2. How are you going to relate each picture to this module’s
topic which is data collection? Justify your answer.
Directions: Do the following activity on your activity paper.
1. Describe each picture below.
2. How are you going to relate each picture to this module’s
topic which is data collection? Justify your answer.