Biological Transitions

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Puberty: An Overview
 From Latin word pubertas (adult)
 Period of lifespan in which an individual becomes capable of sexual
reproduction
 Hormones regulated by the endocrine system lead to physical changes.
 No new hormones are produced and no new bodily systems develop at
puberty; both males and females have estrogen and testosterone from
birth onwards.
 Males have somewhat more testosterone than females while females
have somewhat more estrogen than males. The difference is not great
until puberty.
 At puberty the testosterone rises in males and the estrogen rises in
females and the difference increases dramatically.
 The hormonal profile for males and females is the same for all people,
heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, etc.
The Endocrine System
 Produces, circulates, and regulates hormone levels in the body.
 Hormones
 Substances secreted by endocrine glands
 Glands
 Organs that stimulate particular parts of the body to respond in

specific ways
 Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons
 Neurons in the brain that play important roles at puberty
 Hormonal feedback loop (HPG axis)
 Set point (e.g., thermostat)
The Endocrine System:
HPG Feedback Loop

Figure 1: Levels of sex hormones are regulated by a feedback

system composed of the hypothalamus, pituitary glad, and
gonads.

Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill
Education.
What Triggers Puberty?
Although no new hormones in
adolescence, something signals the HPG
axis to kick on:
Presence of mature sexual partners
Nutritional resources
Physically mature enough to begin
reproducing
 What Triggers Puberty?
Leptin may be an important signal.
Protein produced by fat cells
Must accumulate enough body fat
Rising levels of leptin signal
hypothalamus to stop inhibiting puberty
(at least in females)
Adrenarche
Maturation of adrenal glands leads to
physical (somatic) changes.
 How Hormones Influence
Adolescent Development
Organizing Role
Prenatal hormones “program” the brain to be masculine
or feminine (like setting an alarm clock).
Patterns of behavior as a result of this organization may
not appear until adolescence (e.g., sex differences in
aggression).
Activating Role
Increase in certain hormones at puberty activates
physical changes (e.g., secondary sex characteristics).
Puberty is Affected by Context
Timing of physical changes in adolescence varies by:

Regions of the world

Socioeconomic class
Ethnic group
Historical era
Example: Menarche (first menstruation)
U.S. average 12 years
Lumi (New Guinea) average 18 years
Somatic Development
Effects of hormonal changes of puberty
are remarkable.
Enter puberty looking like a child; within
4 years or so, has the physical appearance
of a young adult.
The average individual grows about 10
inches taller, matures sexually, and
develops an adult proportioned body.
Changes in Stature and the
dimensions of the body
Adolescent growth spurt
Development of primary sex
characteristics (gonads)
Development of secondary sex
characteristics (breasts, pubic hair)
Changes in Stature and the
dimensions of the body
Adolescent growth spurt
Rapid acceleration in growth (height and weight)
Simultaneous release of growth hormones, thyroid
hormones, and androgens
Peak height velocity (time that adolescent is growing
most quickly)
Average female growth spurt is 2 years earlier than the
average male growth spurt.
 Closing of ends of long bones (epiphysis)
Physical Changes of Puberty:
Adolescent Growth Spurt

Figure: (a) Height (in

centimeters) at different
ages for the average male
and female youngster. (b)
Gain in height per year (in
centimeters) for the average
male and female youngster.

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Education.
Physical Changes of Puberty: Sex
Differences in Muscle and Fat
Changes in body composition
Relative proportions of body fat/muscle
change during puberty.
 End of puberty muscle-to-fat ratio
 Boys: 3 to 1

 Girls: 5 to 4
Physical Changes of Puberty:
Sexual Maturation
Development of secondary sex
characteristics
Measured in boys and girls by Tanner
stages
Changes include:
 Growth of pubic hair
 Changes in appearance of sex organs
 Breast development
Sexual Maturation: Boys
Figure: The five pubertal
stages for penile and pubic
hair growth.
Insert
Figure
1.5

Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill
Education.
Sexual Maturation: Girls
Figure: The five pubertal
stages for breast and pubic
hair growth.

Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill
Education.
Variations in the Timing
and Tempo of Puberty
 No specific average age at onset or duration of puberty.
 No relation between the age at which puberty begins and the rate
of pubertal development.
 Ethnic differences in the timing and rate of pubertal maturation:
 Black females (1st)Mexican American females (2nd) White
females (3rd).
 Probably not due to ethnic differences in income, weight, or area of
residence.
 May be due to exposure to chemicals that stimulate earlier puberty.
Genetic and Environmental
Influences on Pubertal Timing
Interaction between genes and
environment
Differences in timing/rate among
individuals in the same general
environment result chiefly from genetic
factors.
Genetic predispositions
 Upper and lower age limits, not a fixed
absolute
Individual Differences in
Pubertal Maturation
Two key environmental influences:
 Nutrition
 Health

Girls who are taller or heavier than their

peers mature earlier.
Delayed puberty is more likely among
individuals with a history of protein
and/or caloric deficiency.
Chronic illness and excessive exercise also
linked with delayed puberty.
Familial Influences on Pubertal
Timing
Social factors in the home environment may influence
the onset of maturation, especially in girls.
Early pubertal maturation in girls is related to:
 Father-absent families, conflict-ridden households, having a
stepfather, and sexual abuse.
 Tension in the family may induce stress, which, in turn, affects

hormonal secretion.
 The presence of a stepfather may expose the adolescent girl to

pheromones that stimulate pubertal maturation.

Group Differences in Pubertal
Maturation
Typically studied by comparing average age of menarche
Across countries:
 Age at menarche occurs later when malnourished or suffering
from chronic disease (e.g., median age range of menarche: Africa
is 14 to 17; United States is 12.5 to 13.5).
The Secular Trend
 Changes in the average age of menarche over the past two
centuries
Group Differences in Pubertal
Maturation
Figure: The age at
menarche has declined
significantly over the
past 150 years. This is
known as the secular
trend.

Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill
Education.
The Immediate Impact of
Puberty
 Homunculus: a mental map of the body
 Starts to form in infancy and is exceptionally stable before puberty
 Physical changes during early adolescence occur faster than the homunculus can adapt
 The homunculus/body discrepancy makes early adolescents clumsy and self-conscious
The immediate impact of puberty
 Physical changes of puberty affect self-image, mood, and
relationships with parents.
 This is true regardless of whether puberty occurs early or late.
 Females tend to be far more dissatisfied with their bodies
than males during adolescents.
 Increased conflict and distance between parents and
children.
 Research is inconclusive but increased conflict/distance
could be due to changes in the adolescent’s:
 Hormones.
 Physical appearance.
 Psychological functioning.
 Lifestyle (e.g., starting junior high school).
 Changes in the parent (e.g., midlife crisis)
 Self-esteem varies by gender and ethnicity.
 White girls are particularly likely to develop poor body
images.
 Adolescent moodiness
 More fluctuations throughout the day than adults.
 Not solely due to hormones.
 Greatly influenced by environmental factors, such as shifts in Body dissatisfaction by BMI
activities.
classification for girls and boys.
 The Immediate Impact
of Puberty: Sleep Habits
 Adolescents need more sleep
than prepubescent and adult
humans
 Even with 10 hours of sleep
adolescents are less alert
than prepubescent children
and adults who also have
had 10 hours sleep

 Despite the need for sleep, over

the course of adolescence, the
average number of hours slept
per night declines until the late
teens and then begins to
increase again in adulthood.
 Adolescent stress levels
 The reaction to stressors is mediated by
the brain that sends signals to various
glands to secrete hormones in what is
called the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
axis (HPA). The major hormone
secretions are adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH) and Corticosterone
(CT).
 There is a feedback loop from the body to
the brain that moderates the amount of
ACTH and CT is produced and stops
production when the stressor is removed.
 Starting at puberty the activation network
becomes more reactive and the feedback
loop less effective until they return to
normal in early adulthood
 The changes in the adolescent brain may
contribute to the increase in stress-
related psychological dysfunctions, such
as anxiety, depression, and drug abuse,
often observed during this stage of
development.
 College Student’s Stressful Event Checklist
T. H. Holmes and R. H. Rahe (1967). The social readjustment scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 11, 213-218.

Instructions : Place an “X” in the column labeled Happened for those events that have occurred in your life recently or that you expect to occur soon.
Total your score by adding the event values, and circle that category below in which your score falls.

Mild Stress : < 150 (Healthy)

Moderate Stress : 150 to 300 (Mild risk to health)
Severe Stress : > 300 (Significant Risk to health)
 The Immediate Impact of
Puberty: Peer Relationships
Physically mature male and female
adolescents are more likely than their less
mature peers to be involved in cross-sex
romantic activities.
Depends on social norms
Pubertal maturation is not associated with
having platonic relationships with other-
sex peers.
 The Impact of Early or Late
Maturation
 Perception of being an early or late maturer is more important in affecting one’s feelings than the reality.
 Behavior is more closely related to how old the adolescent feels, not necessarily how physically mature he or she is.
 Early versus Late Maturing Males
 Pros of early maturation
 Popularity, better self-esteem
 Cons of early maturation
 More drug and alcohol use, delinquency, precocious sexual activity, greater impact of victimization/being bullied
 A few studies have found elevated rates of depression and anxiety.
 More intense temper tantrums and depression during puberty

 Early versus Late Maturing Females

 Compared to early maturing boys, early maturing girls have more difficulties.
 Maturational deviance hypothesis: early maturers stand out at a time when they would rather fit in

 Developmental readiness hypothesis: early maturers are psychologically not ready to cope with the changes

 Cultural and contextual factors: early maturers gain weight earlier and lose the “immature” look socially desired

 Pros of early maturation:

 Popularity with boys

 Cons of early maturation:

 Heavier and shorter stature later in life

 Precocious sexual activity, lowered self-image, higher rates of depression, eating disorders, anxiety, social anxiety

 Victims of rumors and gossip