Southern Technical Program: MSc in

of Graduate Studies EET Electrical

power Technologies

EET 612 Renewable Energy

System

Dr. Abdullah Al Gizi

1
2020/2021
 EET 612 Renewable Energy System

This course covers Solar Energy harvesting, structures of

photovoltaic cells, I-V characteristic of PV system, PV models
and equivalent circuit, Sun Tracking system, MPPT techniques,
Modern solar energy application, Wind energy Harvesting ,
Fundamental soft wind energy harvesting , Different electrical
machine in wind turbines, Tidal energy harvesting , Categories
of Tidal power, Turbine and generators control, Grid
connection Interfaces for tidal energy, Ocean wave energy
harvesting, Wave energy power generators, Grid connection
topologies for different generators used in wave energy
harvesting application, Wave energy application
Solar Energy
 Introduction
1.1.The Sun:
 The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System.
 Scientists age of the sun and the rest of the solar system is estimated
at 4,600,000,000 years old, and appreciate that they will still be able to
produce energy for another period of not less than 5 billion years.
 Chemically, about three quarters of the Sun's mass consists of
hydrogen, whereas the rest is mostly helium, and much smaller quantities of
heavier elements, including oxygen, carbon, neon and iron.
 Temperature on sun's surface is almost 5778 Kelvin.
 Diameter of sun is about 1391000 Km & mass of 1.9*10^30 kg.
 The Sun is the main source for most types of energies.
 Sun’s distance from the earth, nearly 150 million Km away.
Figure(1.1): Sun view
1.2 The Earth:

 Earth is the third planet from the Sun, the densest

planet in the Solar System, the largest of the Solar System's
four terrestrial planets, and the only astronomical object
known to accommodate life.
 The earth is spherical with diameter of 12756 km.
 Earth has two movements:
 About itself to form the phenomenon of night and day.
 Around the sun to form the phenomenon of the four
seasons.
 Earth path around the sun is 942 million km.
Figure(1.2): Earth view
:Longitudes 1.3
.Virtual lines stretching from north pole to the south pole
Longitudes lines number is 360 and the time between each
.line is 4 minutes
Run in north-south directions
.Used in determining the location and time

Figure(1.3):Longitudes
:Latitudes 1.4
Virtual parallel circles stretching the earth. They are 180
.circle
The circle of equator half the earth into north and south
parts. There are 90 circle in the north the equator and 90
circle in the south of the equator. Used to know the
.Climate

Figure(1.4):Longitudes
 :Localization of sun position 1.5
The earth's rotation on its axis and the annual rotation of the tilted
earth around the sun both affect the angle at which sunlight passes
through the atmosphere as seen from any one point on the earth. The
position of a site on earth with respect to the sun is determined by
two continuously changing angles- namely, the sun's hour ( ω) and
declination (δ) angles and by one fixed angle that specifies a site's
location on earth-namely, the latitude (Ф) angle. The angle of
incident beam radiation on a surface (θ) can be found from following
cos   cos  z cos   sin  z sin  cos( s   ) ) 1-1(.....…
equation:

z :Where
 Zenith angle :
s Slope angle, the angle between the plane of surface and the :
 .horizontal
Solar azimuth angle :
Surface azimuth angle :
.Some of these angles are indicated in figure (1.1)
 1.6 Hour Angle:
The sun's hour angle for a particular location depends on the momentary
position of the earth in its axial rotation. Since the earth make a complete 360°
rotation in 24 hours (the hour angle changes 15° every hour). The hour angle
measured from the local meridian or sun's highest point in the sky at solar noon
(12:00), with angles between sunrise and solar noon being positive and angles
after noon being negative. This angle can be calculated using the following
equation:
  (t  12)(360 / 24) …….(1-2)

Where:
t : solar time

Figure (1.1) : Zenith, slope, surface azimuth, and solar azimuth angles for a
tilted surface.
 Because, the earth is rotating on its axis and revolving around the
sun simultaneously, so, the solar time different from the standard
time by factor that is computed using the equation of time (EOT) .
The EOT determined from figure (1.2)

Figure (1.2) : the solar time correction factor versus time of year.
(EOT)
1.7. Declination angle:
The sun's declination angle is the angular position of the sun at its highest
point in the sky with respect to plane of the equator; it depends on the
momentary position of the earth in its revolution around the sun. In order to
found this angle, equation (1-3) is used:

284  n
  23.45 sin( 360 * ) ………………………...…………. (1-3)
365
In the north hemisphere, the declination angle reaches its most northerly and
positive peak of +23.45 on Jun 21st (the summer solstice) and drops to its
most southerly and negative peak of -23.45 on December 21st (the winter
solstice).
1.8. The sun chart:
The sun moves through the sky from east to west in on arc that is higher in
the summer and lower in the winter. The sun's apparent position with respect
to a stationary earth is measured by two angles: the solar azimuth (γs) and
solar altitude (α) angles, as shown in figure (1.3). These angles are calculated
from the latitude (Ф) and declination (δ), and hour (ω) angles by using the
equations below:
sin   sin  sin   cos  cos  cos  )1-4( ……………

 cos  sin 
sin  s  )1-5( …..………………………………………
cos 
 z  90   )1-6( ..……………… .……………………………

:Where
α: Altitude of the sun
Ф: Latitude of the site
δ: Declination of the sun
ω: Hour angle of the sun
γs: Azimuth angle of the sun
.θz: Zenith angle
 Figure (1.3) Orientation of the sun in the sky

If the declination is known, the hour angle, and the site's latitude
the sun's position in the sky at any moment in time can be
calculated. Sun chart showing the sun's path at different times of
the year for different latitudes are shown in figure (1-3).
Figure (1-4.a) : the sun’s altitude versus azimuth angle for a latitude of 48° north.
Figure (1-4.b): the sun’s altitude versus azimuth angle for a latitude of 32° north.
: Sun energy 1.9
The sun emits virtually all of its radiation energy in a spectrum of wavelengths
that range from about 2x1Q-7 to 4x1 Q-6 m. The great majority of this energy is
in the visible region. Each wavelength corresponds to a frequency and an energy;
the shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency and the greater the energy
(expressed in eV, or electron volts; an eV is the energy an electron acquires
.when it passes through a potential of 1V in a vacuum)

Figure (1.5): Wavelength ranges of solar energy

2.Renewable Energy:
Renewable energies contribute more and more to the world’s ever rising
need of energy . Renewables are climate-friendly forms of energy, absence
due to the of emissions detrimental to the environment . The savings
especially in carbon-dioxide and sculpture dioxide emissions are a significant
advantage over fossil power stations. Hence a main role is assigned to
renewable energy in the proclaimed fight against Climate Change. The major
source of renewable energies is the sun, with some forms also attributed to
the earth and the moon.
 Renewable Energy main types are:
– Solar Energy
– Wind Energy
– Biomass Energy
– Hydro and Wave Energy
– Geothermal Energy
Solar energy 2.1
Solar energy is one of the most important renewable energy sources that have been
gaining increased attention in recent years. Solar energy is plentiful; it has the
greatest availability compared to other energy sources. The amount of energy
supplied to the earth in one day by the sun is sufficient to power the total energy
needs of the earth for one year. Solar energy is clean and free of emissions, since it
does not produce pollutants or by-products harmful to nature. Solar to electrical
energy conversion can be done in two ways: solar thermal and solar photovoltaic.
Solar thermal is similar to conventional AC electricity generation by steam turbine
excepting that instead of fossil fuel; heat extracted from concentrated solar ray is
used to produce steam and apart is stored in thermally insulated tanks for using
during intermittency of sunshine or night time. Solar photovoltaic use cells made of
silicon or certain types of semiconductor materials which convert the light energy
absorbed from incident sunshine into DC electricity.
2.2 Solar Cells and their Characteristics
Photovoltaic or solar cells, at the present time, furnish one of the most-important
long duration power supplies. This cell is considered a major candidate for obtaining
energy from the sun, since it can convert sunlight directly to electricity with high
conversion efficiency. It can provide nearly permanent power at low operating cost,
and is virtually free of pollution. Since a typical photovoltaic cell produces less than 3
watts at approximately 0.5 volt dc, cells must be connected in series-parallel
configurations to produce enough power for high-power applications. Cells are
configured into module and modules are connected as arrays. Modules may have peak
output powers ranging from a few watts, depending upon the intended application,
to more than 300 watts. Typical array output power is in the 100-watt-kilowatt range,
although megawatt arrays do exist. Photovoltaic cells, like batteries, generate direct
current (DC), which is generally used for small loads (electronic equipment). When
DC from photovoltaic cells is used for commercial applications or sold to electric
utilities using the electric grid, it must be converted to alternating current (AC) using
grid inverters, solid-state devices that convert DC power to AC.
2.3 Structure of Photovoltaic Cells
A photovoltaic (PV) cell converts sunlight into electricity, which is the physical
process known as photoelectric effect. Light which shines on a PV cell, may be
reflected, absorbed, or passed through; however, only absorbed light generates
electricity. The energy of absorbed light is transferred to electrons in the atoms
of the PV cell. With their newfound energy, these electrons escape from their
normal positions in the atoms of semiconductor PV material and become part of
the electrical flow, or current, in an electrical circuit. A special electrical
property of the PV cell, called “built-in electric field,” provides the force or
voltage required to drive the current through an external “load” such as a light
bulb. To induce the built-in electric field within a PV cell, two layers of
different semiconductor materials are placed in contact with each other. One
layer is an “n-type” semiconductor with an abundance of electrons, which have
a negative electrical
charge. The other layer is a “p-type” semiconductor with an abundance of
holes, which have a positive electrical charge. Although both materials are
electrically neutral, n-type silicon has excess electrons and p-type silicon has
excess holes. Sandwiching these together creates a p-n junction at their
interface, thereby creating an electric field. When n-type and p-type silicon
come into contact, excess electrons move from the n-type side to the p-type
side. The result is the buildup of positive charge along the n-type side of the
interface and of negative charge along the p-type side, which establishes an
electrical field at the interface. The electrical field forces the electrons to
move from the semiconductor toward the negative surface to carry current. At
the same time, the holes move in the opposite direction, toward the positive
surface, where they wait for incoming electrons. Light travels in packets of
energy called photons. As a PV cell is exposed to sunlight, many of the photons
are reflected, pass right through, or absorbed by the solar cell. The generation
of electric current happens inside the depletion zone of the p-n junction. The
depletion region is the area around the p-n junction where the electrons from
the “n-type” silicon, have diffused into the holes of the “p-type” material.
When a photon of light is absorbed by one of these atoms in the “n-type” silicon
it will dislodge an electron, creating a free electron and a hole. The free electron
and hole has sufficient energy to jump out of the depletion zone. If a wire is
connected from the cathode (n-type silicon) to the anode (p-type silicon)
electrons will flow through the wire. The electron is attracted to the positive
charge of the “p-type” material and travels through the external load creating a
flow of electric current. The hole created by the dislodged electron is attracted
to the negative charge of “n-type” material and migrates to the back electrical
contact. As the electron enters the “p-type” silicon from the back electrical
contact it combines with the hole restoring the electrical neutrality.

(a)
(b)

Figure(2.1.a&b): p-n junctions of the PV cell

Note that the Earth's atmosphere and cloud cover absorb, reflect, and scatter
some of the solar radiation entering the atmosphere. Nonetheless, enormous
amounts of direct and diffuse sunshine energy reach the earth's surface and can
be used to produce photovoltaic electricity.

Figure(2.2): Radiation of sun energy

Photovoltaic Modules/Array 2.4
A PV or solar cell is the basic building block of a PV (or solar electric) system. An
individual PV cell is usually quite small, typically producing about 1 or 2W of
power. To boost the power output of PV cells, they have to be connected
together to form larger units called modules. The modules, in turn, can be
connected to form larger units called arrays, which can be interconnected to
produce more power. By connecting the cells or modules in series, the output
voltage can be increased. On the other hand, the output current can reach
higher values by connecting the cells or modules in parallel.

Figure(2.3): (a) PV cell, (b) PV module, (c) PV array

PV devices can be made from various types of semiconductor materials,
deposited or arranged in various structures. The three main types of materials
used for solar cells are silicon, polycrystalline thin films, and single crystalline
thin film. Solar energy systems are typically classified into two systems: Passive
and Active system. Passive systems do not involve panel system or other moving
mechanisms to produce energy. Active systems typically involve electrical and
mechanical components to capture sunlight and process it into usable forms such
as heating, lighting and electricity.

2.5 Photovoltaic cell model

The use of equivalent electric circuits in figure below makes it possible to model
characteristics of a PV cell. The PV model consists of a current source (Isc ), a
diode (D) and a series resistance (Rs ). The effect of parallel resistance (Rp ),
represents the leakage resistance of the cell is very small in a single module,
thus the model does not include it. The current source represents the current
generated by photons (Iph ), and its output is constant under constant
temperature and constant incident radiation of light.
 Figure (2.4):PV cell with its equivalent electric circuit

2.6 Current-voltage (I-V) curves

Current-voltage (I-V) curves are obtained by exposing the cell to a constant
level of light, while maintaining a constant cell temperature, varying the
resistance of the load, and measuring the produced current. I-V curve
typically passes through two points:
Short-circuit current (I sc): is the current produced when the positive and
negative terminals of the cell are short-circuited, and the voltage between
the terminals is zero, which corresponds to zero load resistance. Figure: (a).
Open-circuit voltage (Voc ): is the voltage across the positive and negative
terminals under open-circuit conditions, when the current is zero, which
corresponds to infinite load resistance.
Figure(2.5):(a) Short circuit current and (b) Open circuit Voltage
I-V characteristic of a PV panel is shown in figure below . For any given set of
operational conditions, cells have a single operating point where the values of the
current (I) and Voltage (V) of the cell result in a maximum power output. The power
P is given by P=VI. A plot of panel output power vs. panel voltage is shown in figure
below which have a peak point indicated by MPP which falls off on both sides. This is
known as the maximum power point (MPP) and corresponds to the "knee" of the
curve, at which the module operates with the maximum efficiency and produces the
maximum output power.

Figure(2.6): I-V (top) and P-V (bottom) characteristic of a PV cell

2.7 Effects of temperature
I-V characteristic of a PV module varies at various module
temperatures. At first, calculate the short circuit current ( Isc) at a
given cell temperature (T).

(2.5)

)2.6( ………………………………………
The reverse saturation current (Is) is temperature dependent and the
current (I) at a given temperature (T) is calculated by the following
equation,

………………………….(2.7)

…………………………….…(2.8)

I-V characteristic of the panel is plotted for three different

temperatures, T=273K, 298K and 323K:
 Figure(2.7): I-V curve for varying temperature

Because of the photovoltaic nature of solar panels, their current-

voltage, or IV, curves depend on temperature and irradiance levels.
Therefore, the operating current and voltage which maximize
power output will change with environmental conditions.
2.8 Solar Radiation data
The solar power (solar radiation) level received on earth fluctuates with the
rotation of the earth on its axis and the rotation of the earth around the sun;
during different times of the day and year, the sun's intensity (or energy received)
is changed by the varying amounts of atmosphere solar radiation must pass through
and the changing incident angle at which the light strikes any surface. The sun's
position in the sky can be determined from the time of a day and year and the
latitude of a site in question, and the slope and position of a tilted surface on
earth are controlled by the operator, so the solar power (or, the radiation data)
that incident on the P.V. generator at different locations and times must be
expected to extract the maximum power from the PV generator. An approximate
plot of solar power versus time will be useful when designing a photovoltaic
generator to satisfy a load demand.
 The solar power received directly outside the earth's atmosphere is continuous at
a rate of about 1350 w/m2, this value called solar constant (Gsc). The peak solar
power experienced on a horizontal surface near sea level is about 1000 w/m2
when the sun is at its apex in the sky on a sunny day, this value often called one
sun.
Solar radiation data are available in several forms. The following information
about radiation data is important in their understanding and use:
1. Whether they are instantaneous measurements (irradiance) or values
integrated over some period of time (irradiation).
2. Whether the measurements are of beam, diffuse, or total radiation (the
instrument used).
3. The receiving surface orientation (usually horizontal, sometimes inclined
at a fixed slope, or normal to the beam radiation).
4. The period over which they are averaged (e.g. monthly averages of daily
radiation).
Most radiation data available are for horizontal surface, include both direct and
diffuse radiation, and were measured with pyranometers as shown in figure (2.8).
Most of these instruments provide radiation records as a function of time and do not
themselves provide a means of integrating the records.
Two types of solar radiation data widely available. The first is monthly average daily
total radiation on a horizontal surface. The second is hourly total radiation on a
horizontal surface for each hour for extended periods such as one or more years.
Figure(2.8): some classes of pyranometer
2.9 Effect of sun radiation.
The sun takes up many positions in the sky according to the time of day and the
time of year. When the sun is exactly overhead (solar noon) in a site on earth on
clear day the solar power should be maximum, because direct solar radiation has a
least amount of atmosphere to pierce and its incident angle with the earth's surface
is closest to the perpendicular. As the sun's position moves away from its solar-noon,
its intensity decreases. Therefore, by moving the sun around the sky, the incident
radiation on the P.V. generator is varying. Therefore, the current from a P.V. fixed in
one position varies through the day rises during the morning, reaches its highest
level at midday, and then falls during the afternoon. Figure (1-15) shows I-V curves
for P.V. generator at several radiation levels.

Figure (2-8): I-V curves for a PV generator, at several radiation levels,

(G1>G2>G3>G4>G5).
 3. Maximum Power Point Tracker
3.1. Introduction
The maximum power point tracker (MPPT) is now prevalent in grid-tied PV
power system and is becoming more popular in stand-alone systems. MPPT is a
power electronic device interconnecting a PV power source and a load,
maximizes the power output from a PV module or array with varying operating
conditions, and therefore maximizes the system efficiency. In a (Power-Voltage
or current-voltage) curve of a solar panel, there is an optimum operating point
such that the PV delivers the maximum possible power to the load. This unique
point is the maximum power point (MPP) of solar panel. Because of the
photovoltaic nature of solar panels, their current-voltage, or IV, curves depend
on temperature and irradiance levels. Therefore, the operating current and
voltage which maximize power output will change with environmental
conditions. As the optimum point changes with the natural conditions so it is
very important to track the maximum power point (MPP) for a successful PV
system. So in PV systems a maximum power point tracker (MPPT) is very much
needed. In most PV systems a control algorithm, namely maximum power point
tracking algorithm is utilized to have the full advantage of the PV systems.
3.2 Principle of Maximum Power Point Tracking(MPPT):

For any given set of operational conditions, cells have a single operating
point where the values of the current (I) and voltage (V) of the cell result in
a maximum power output. These values correspond to a particular load
resistance, R= V/I, as specified by Ohm’s Law. The power P is given by P =
V*I. From basic circuit theory, the power delivered from or to a device is
optimized where the derivative of the I-V curve is equal and opposite the I/V
ratio. This corresponds to the "knee" of the curve. The load with resistance
R=V/I, which is equal to the reciprocal of this value and draws the maximum
power from the device is sometimes called the characteristic resistance of
the cell.
This is a dynamic quantity which changes depending on the level of
illumination, as well as other factors such as temperature and the
factors such as temperature and the age of the cell. If the resistance
is lower or higher than this value, the power drawn will be less than
the maximum available, and thus the cell will not be used as
efficiently as it could be. Maximum power point trackers utilize
different types of control circuit or logic to search for this point and
thus to allow the converter circuit to extract the maximum power
available from a cell.
3.3 Methods of MPPT algorithms

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) is used to obtain the maximum power
from these systems. In these applications, the load can demand more power
than the PV system can deliver. There are many different approaches to
maximizing the power from a PV system, this range from using simple voltage
relationships to more complexes multiple sample based analysis. There are
some conventional methods for MPPT. Seven of them are listed here.
These methods include:
1. Constant Voltage method
2. Open Circuit Voltage method
3. Short Circuit Current method
4. Perturb and Observe method
5. Incremental Conductance method
6. Temperature method
7. Temperature Parametric method
3.3.1 Constant Voltage Method:

The constant voltage method is the simplest method. This method simply uses
single voltage to represent the Vmp. In some cases this value is programmed
by an external resistor connected to a current source pin of the control IC. In
this case, this resistor can be part of a network that includes a NTC thermistor
so the value can be temperature compensated. For the various different
irradiance variations, the method will collect about 80% of the available
maximum power. The actual performance will be determined by the average
level of irradiance. In the cases of low levels of irradiance the results can be
better.
Block Diagram of Constant Voltage MPPT Algorithm
3.3.2 Open Circuit Voltage Method:
An improvement on this method uses Voc to calculate Vmp. Once the
system obtains the Voc value, Vmp is calculated by,

…………………………………………….(3-1)

The k value is typically between to 0.7 to 0.8. It is necessary to

update Voc occasionally to compensate for any temperature change.
Sampling the Voc value can also help correct for temperature
changes and to some degree changes in irradiance. Monitoring the
input current can indicate when the Voc should be re-measured. The
k value is a function of the logarithmic function of the irradiance,
increasing in value as the irradiance increases. An improvement to
the Voc method is to also take this into account.
Benefits:
1. Relatively lower cost.
2. Very simple and easy to implement.
Drawbacks:
1. Not accurate and may not operate exactly at MPP.
2. Slower response as Vmp is proportional to the Voc.
3.3.3 Short Circuit Current Method:
The short circuit current method uses a value of Isc to estimate
Imp.

…………………………………..…(3.2)

This method uses a short load pulse to generate a short circuit

condition. During the short circuit pulse, the input voltage will go to
zero, so the power conversion circuit must be powered from some
other source. One advantage of this system is the tolerance for
input capacitance compared to the Voc method. The k values are
typically close to 0.9 to 0.98.
Benefits:
1. It is simple and low cost to implement.
2. This method does not require an input.
3. In low insulation conditions, it is better than others.
Drawbacks:
1. Irradiation is never exactly at the MPP due to variations on the array that are not
considered (it is not always accurate).
2. Data varies under different weather conditions and locations.
3. It has low efficiency.
In these two methods we have to choose the right constant k value carefully, to
accurately calibrate the solar panel.
3.3.4 Incremental Conductance Method
The incremental conductance method based on the fact that, the slope of the PV
array of the power curve is zero at the MPP, positive on the left of the MPP. And
negative on the right on the MPP. This can be given by,
 (3-3,4,5)

Figure (3-1): PV curve and INCCOND algorithm

The flowchart shown in Figure below explain the operation of this algorithm. It
starts with measuring the present values of PV module voltage and current. Then,
it calculates the incremental changes, dI and dV, using the present values and
previous values of voltage and current. The main check is carried out using the
relationships in the equations. If the condition satisfies the inequality equation
(3.1), it is assumed that the operating point is at the left side of the MPP thus
must be moved to the right by increasing the module voltage. Similarly, if the
condition satisfies the inequality equation (3.3), it is assumed that the operating
point is at the right side of the MPP, thus must be moved to the left by decreasing
the module voltage. When the operating point reaches at the MPP, the condition
satisfies the equation (3.1), and the algorithm bypasses the voltage adjustment.
At the end of cycle, it updates the history by storing the voltage and current data
that will be used as previous values in the next cycle. The flowchart of this
algorithm is given below,
The flowchart of the INC MPPT method
Benefits:
It can determine the maximum power point without oscillating around this value.
Drawbacks:
1. The incremental conductance method can produce oscillations and can
perform erratically under rapidly changing atmospheric conditions.
2. The computational time is increased due to slowing down of the sampling
frequency resulting from the higher complexity of the algorithm compared to
the P&O method.
3.3.5 Perturb and Observe Method
In this method the controller adjusts the voltage by a small amount from the
array and measures power, if the power increases, further adjustments in the
direction are tried until power no longer increases. This is called P&O
method. Due to ease of implementation it is the most commonly used MPPT
method.

Figure (3-2): output power using P&O algorithm

The voltage to a cell is increased initially, if the output power increase, the voltage is
continually increased until the output power starts decreasing. Once the output power
starts decreasing, the voltage to the cell decreased until maximum power is reached. This
process is continued until the MPPT is attained. This result is an oscillation of the output
power around the MPP. PV module’s output power curve as a function of voltage (P-V
curve), at the constant irradiance and the constant module temperature, assuming the PV
module is operating at a point which is away from the MPP. In this algorithm the
operating voltage of the PV module is perturbed by a small increment, and the resulting
change of power, P is observed. If the P is positive, then it is supposed that it has moved
the operating point closer to the MPP. Thus, further voltage perturbations in the same
direction should move the operating point toward the MPP. If the P is negative, the
operating point has moved away from the MPP, and the direction of perturbation should
be reversed to move back toward the MPP.
Perturb and Observe tracking efficiency: Here
the chart of P&O method’s efficiency during
several conditions.
Benefits:
P&O is very popular and most commonly used in practice because of
1. Its simplicity in algorithm.
2. Ease of implementation.
3. Low cost
4. It is a comparatively an accurate method
Drawbacks:
There are some limitations that reduce its MPPT efficiency. They are,
1. It cannot determine when it has actually reached the MPP.
2. Under steady state operation the output power oscillates around the MPP.
 4. PV System Components
The array by itself does not constitute the pv power system. We must also have a
structure to mount it, point to the sun, and the components that accept the DC power
produced by the array and condition the power in the form that is usable by the load. If
the load is AC, the system needs an inverter to convert the DC power into AC,
generally at 50 or 60 Hz.

Figure(4-1):Simple pv solar system

Figure below shows the necessary components of a stand-alone pv power
system. The peak power tracker senses the voltage and current outputs of the
array and continuously adjusts the operating point to extract the maximum
power under the given climatic conditions. The output of the array goes to the
inverter, which converts the DC into AC. The array output in excess of the
load requirement is used to charge the battery. The battery charger is usually a
DC-DC buck converter. If excess power is still available after fully charging
the battery, it is shunted in dump heaters, which may be space or room heaters
in a stand-alone system. When the sun is not available, the battery discharges
to the inverter to power the loads.
The battery discharge diode Db is to prevent the battery from being charged
when the charger is opened after a full charge or for other reasons. The array
diode Da is to isolate the array from the battery, thus keeping the array from
acting as load on the battery at night. In the grid-connected system, dump
heaters are not required, as all excess power is fed to the grid lines. The battery
is also eliminated, except for small critical loads, such as the start up controls
and the computers. The DC power is first converted into AC by the inverter,
ripples are filtered and then only the filtered power is fed into the grid lines. For
PV applications, the inverter is a critical component, which converts the array
DC power into AC for supplying the loads or interfacing with the grid.
A new product recently being introduced into the market is the AC-pv modules, which
integrates an inverter directly in the module, and is presently available in a few hundred
watts capacity. It provides utility grade 60 Hz power directly from the module junction
box. This greatly simplifies the pv system design. PWM solar chargers use technology
similar to other modern high quality battery chargers. When a battery voltage reaches the
regulation setpoint, the PWM algorithm slowly reduces the charging current to avoid
heating and gassing of the battery, yet the charging continues to return the maximum
amount of energy to the battery in the shortest time. The result is a higher charging
efficiency, rapid recharging, and a healthy battery at full capacity.
Figure (4-2):Peak power tracking photovoltaic power system showing major
components.
References:
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth
4. "Photovoltaic Fundamentals" , U.S. department of
energy ,Washington DC , 1995.
5. "Design of a Charge Controller Circuit with Maximum
Power Point Tracker (MPPT) for Photovoltaic
System" , Dept. of Electrical & Electronic Engineering,
BRAC University , 2012.
Wind Energy
 Introduction

In the past several years, wind energy has been one of the
fastest growing energy sources in the world. In the last two
decades there have been many technological advances in the
wind power industry, making this source of energy more
reliable and profitable. Wind energy not only has economical
impact on our society, but it has a big environmental and social
impact as well. The use of wind energy reduces the
combustions of fossil fuels and the consequent emissions.
Wind farms
* A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same
location used for production of electricity. A large wind
farm may consist of several hundred individual wind
turbines distributed over an extended area, but the land
between the turbines may be used for agricultural or other
purposes. A wind farm may also be located offshore.
 Wind power system
System Components
* The tower.
* The wind turbine with two or three blades.
* The yaw mechanism such as the tail vane.
* The mechanical gear.
* The electrical generator.
* The speed sensors and control.
The modern system often has the following additional components:
* The power electronics.
* The control electronics, usually incorporating a computer.
* The battery for improving the load availability in stand-alone
mode.
* The transmission link connecting to the area grid.
 1-Tower
The wind tower supports the turbine
and the nacelle containing the
mechanical gear, the electrical
generator, the yaw mechanism, and the
stall control. The height of tower in the
past has been in the 20 to 50-meter
range. For medium and large size
turbines, the tower is slightly taller
than the rotor diameter. Otherwise,
they would suffer due to the poor wind
speed found near the ground surface.
 2-Wind Turbine
The principal component groups in a wind turbine are the rotor, the
drive train, the main frame, the yaw system and the tower
 1-Rotor
The rotor is unique among the component groups. Other types of
machinery have drive trains, brakes, and towers, but only wind turbines
have rotors designed for the purpose of extracting significant power from
the wind and converting it to rotary motion. The next three sections focus
on the topics of primary interest in the rotor: (1) blades, (2) aerodynamic
control surfaces, and (3) hub.
 1.1-Turbine Blades
The turbine blades are made of high-density wood or glass
fiber and epoxy composites. Modern wind turbines have two or
three blades.
1-2 Aerodynamic control surface

An aerodynamic control surface is a device which can be

moved to change the aerodynamic characteristics of a rotor.
There is a variety of types of aerodynamic control surfaces
that can be incorporated in wind turbine blades.
Hub 1-3 *
The hub of the wind turbine is that component that connects the blades
to the main shaft and ultimately to the rest of the drive train. The hub
transmits and must withstand all the loads generated by the blades.
There are three basic types of hub design that have been applied in
modern horizontal axis wind turbines: (1) rigid hubs, (2) teetering hubs,
and (3) hubs for hinged blades.
2-Drive train
A complete wind turbine drive train consists of all the
rotating components: rotor, main shaft, couplings, gearbox,
brakes, and generator
 2-1-Main shaft
The main shaft is the principal rotating element, providing for the
transfer of torque from the rotor to the rest of the drive train. It
also supports the weight of the rotor. The main shaft is supported
in turn by bearings, which transfer reaction loads to the main
frame of the turbine.
2-2 Couplings
Couplings are used to connect shafts together. There are two
locations in particular where large couplings are likely to be used
in wind turbines: (1) between the main shaft and the gearbox, and
(2) between the gearbox output shaft and the generator.
2-3 Gearbox
Most wind turbine drive trains include a gearbox to increase
the speed of the input shaft to the generator. An increase in speed
is needed because wind turbine rotors, and hence main shafts,
turn at a much lower speed than is required by most electrical
generators.
Generator 2-4
The generator converts the mechanical power from the rotor
into electrical power.
One of the important things to recall is that most grid-
connected generators turn at constant or nearly constant
speed. the electrical power can be accomplished by any one
of the following types of the electrical generators:
• The direct current (DC) generator.
• The synchronous generator.
• The induction generator.
* DC Generator
All machines are internally alternating current (AC) machines because
of the conductor rotation in the magnetic flux of alternate north and
south polarity. The DC machine must convert the AC into DC, and does
so by using the mechanical commutator. The commutator performs this
function by sliding carbon brushes on a series of copper segments.

SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
Synchronous machines are ac rotating machines that rotate at a
speed proportional to the armature current frequency. In this type of
machine the magnetic field created by the armature currents rotate at the
same speed as that created by the field current on the rotor. Synchronous
machines have been used for many years as generators of large power
plants such as turbine generators and hydroelectric generators.
 * Induction Generator
Most of the electrical power in the industry is consumed by the induction
machine driving the mechanical load. For this reason, the induction
machine represents a well established technology. The primary advantage
of the induction machine is the rugged brushless construction and no
need for separate DC field power. The disadvantages of both the DC
machine and the synchronous machine are eliminated in the induction
machine, resulting in low capital cost, low maintenance, and better
transient performance.
Yaw Control-3
The yaw control continuously orients the rotor in the direction of
the wind. It can be as simple as the tail vane, or more complex on
modern towers. Theoretical considerations dictate free yaw as much as
possible. However, rotating blades with large moments of inertia
produce high gyroscopic torque during yaw, often resulting in loud
noise. Too rapid yaw may generate noise exceeding the local ordinance
limit. Hence, a controlled yaw is often required and is used.
 4-Main frame and nacelle
The nacelle is the housing for the principal components of the wind
turbine (with the exception of the rotor). It includes the main frame and
the nacelle cover.
 5-Speed Control
The wind turbine technology has changed significantly in the last 25 years. Large
wind turbines being installed today tend to be of variable speed design,
incorporating the pitch control and the power electronics.

* No speed control whatsoever. In this method, the turbine, the electrical

generator, and the entire system is designed to withstand the extreme speed
under gusty wind.
* yaw and tilt control, in which the rotor axis is shifted out of the wind direction
when the wind speed exceeds the design limit.
* pitchcontrol, which changes the pitch of the blade with the changing wind
speed to regulate the rotor speed.
* stall control. In this method of speed control, when the wind speed exceeds the
safe limit on the system, the blades are shifted into a position such that they
stall. The turbine has to be restarted after the gust has gone.
* Theprocess of wind-produced electrical
generation

The process of wind-produced electrical generation begins when the

force of the wind pushes against the turbines’ blades, causing them to
rotate, creating mechanical energy. The spinning blades, attached to a hub
and a low-speed shaft, turn along with the blades. The rotating low-speed
shaft is connected to a gearbox that connects to a high-speed shaft on the
opposite side of the gearbox. This high-speed shaft connects to an
electrical generator that converts the mechanical energy from the rotation
of the blades into electric energy.
* System Design Features
The following additional design trade-offs are available to the
system engineer:
* Number of Blades
This is the first determination the design engineer must make.
Wind machines have been built with the number of blades ranging
from 2 to 40 or more. The high number of blades was used in old
low, tip-speed ratio rotors for water pumping, the application
which needs high starting torque.
The major factors involved in deciding the number of blades are as
follows:
* The effect on power coefficient.
* The design tip-speeds ratio.
* The cost.
* The nacelle weight.
* The structural dynamics.
* The means of limiting yaw rate to reduce gyroscopic fatigue.
* Rotor Upwind or Downwind
Operating the rotor upwind of the tower produces higher power as it eliminates
the tower shadow on the blades. This also results in lower noise, lower blade
fatigue, and smoother power output. The downwind blades, on the other hand,
allow the use of free yaw system. It also allows the blades to deflect away from
the tower when loaded. Both types are used at present with no clear trend.
 Horizontal Axis Versus Vertical Axis
Most wind turbines built at present have a horizontal axis. The vertical axis
Darrieus machine has several advantages. First of all, it is omnidirectional and
requires no yaw mechanism to continuously orient itself toward the wind
direction. Secondly, its vertical drive shaft simplifies the installation of the
gearbox and the electrical generator on the ground, making the structure much
simpler
* Spacing of the Towers
When installing a cluster of machines in a wind farm, certain spacing
between the wind towers must be maintained to optimize the power
cropping.
The spacing depends on the terrain, the wind direction, the speed, and the
turbine size. The optimum spacing is found in rows 8 to 12-rotor diameters
apart in the wind direction, and 1.5 to 3-rotor diameters apart in the
crosswind direction
 Wind Speed and Energy Distribution
Speed and Power Relation
The kinetic energy in air of mass “m” moving with speed V is given by the following:
Kinetic Energy = joules.
The power in moving air is the flow rate of kinetic energy per second .Therefore:

If we let
P = mechanical power in the moving air.
ρ = air density .
A = area swept by the rotor blades .
V = velocity of the air (m/s).

Then, the volumetric flow rate is A·V, the mass flow rate of the air in kilograms per
second is ρ·A·V, and the power is given by the following:
p=
The specific power of the site or the power density of the site, and is given by the
following expression:
Specific Power of the site = watts per m2
Power Extracted from the Wind
The actual power extracted by the rotor blades is the difference between the
upstream and the downstream wind powers.

Where Po= mechanical power extracted by the rotor, i.e., the turbine output power
V = upstream wind velocity at the entrance of the rotor blades
= downstream wind velocity at the exit of the rotor blades.
The mass flow rate of air through the rotating blades is, therefore, derived by
multiplying the density with the average velocity. That is:
mass flow rate =
The mechanical power extracted by the rotor, which is driving the electrical
generator, is therefore:
The above expression can be algebraically rearranged:

The power extracted by the blades is customarily expressed as a fraction of the

upstream wind power as follows:

Where

The power coefficient () is the efficiency of converting the power in the

wind into mechanical energy in the rotor shaft
The plot of power coefficient versus (Vo/V) shows that is a single, maximum-
value function figure 6 It has the maximum value of 0.59 when the (Vo/V) is one-
third. The maximum power is extracted from the wind at that speed ratio, when
the downstream wind speed equals one-third of the upstream speed. Under this
condition
 Variable Speed Wind Turbine
Original models of wind turbines were fixed speed turbines; that is, the rotor
speed was a constant for all wind speeds. The tip-speed ratio for a wind turbine
is given by the following formula:

Where, ω is the rotor speed (in radians per second), R is the length of a blade,
and v is the wind speed. For a fixed-speed wind turbine, the value of the tip-
speed ratio is only changed by wind speed variations. In reference to a -λ graph
Rotor Swept Area
As seen in the power equation, the output power of the wind turbine varies
linearly with the rotor swept area. For the horizontal axis turbine, the rotor swept
area is given by:

For the Darrieus vertical axis machine, determination of the swept area is
complex, as it involves elliptical integrals. However, approximating the blade
shape as a parabola leads to the following simple expression for the swept area:
Maximum rotor width at the center) . (Height of the rotor)

Air Density
The wind power varies linearly with the air density sweeping the blades. The air
density ρ varies with pressure and temperature in accordance with the gas law:

Where p = air pressure

T = temperature on the absolute scale
R = gas constant.
 Maximum Power Operation
Constant Tip-Speed Ratio Scheme
Operating the wind turbine at a constant tip-speed ratio corresponding to the
maximum power point at all times can generate 20 to 30 percent more electricity
per year. However, this requires a control scheme to operate with variable speed.
 Maximum power tracking
In wind power generation the power available varies with the cube of the wind
speed therefore, to maximize power extraction from the wind; the wind turbine
should operate at variable speeds. In order to allow the wind turbine to operate at
variable speeds, we need to decouple the electric generator from the power grid.
* The dc-to-dc converter is used to control Vdc which is the dc voltage across
capacitor C1. The maximum power tracker controller commands a voltage
reference that is compared to the actual value of Vdc and it is fed into a PI
controller. The output of the PI controller is compared to a triangular
waveform to determine when to turn the boost converter switch on or off. As it
was previously stated, wind turbines have an optimal speed that will yield
maximum power for each wind speed. Therefore controlling the dc voltage
(Vdc) allows the control of the current flow through the generator, which
controls the speed of the turbine, to reach maximum power.
* The dc-to-ac voltage source inverter interfaces the wind turbine system with
the power grid. The inverter operates so that the amplitude of the current
output varies in order to keep constant the voltage across Co, which is the dc
side inverter voltage (Vo). In addition, the same controller can be used to
change the phase angle of the current waveform so that the desired power
factor is obtained.
*
 Maximum power tracking algorithm
This algorithm is capable of extracting maximum power from the air
stream at any wind speed without the knowledge of wind speed or rotor
speed
The generated mechanical power is given by,

For simplification, the generated electric power for a 1-phase generator

is given by,

Assuming there are no losses in the system we can say that,

The basic electrical and motion equations are

,
Where , p being the number of poles of the generator.
The phase current is given by,

Assuming that if = If

Using a diode rectifier, the dc output voltage, Vdc, is proportional

to the generator phase voltage, Va, therefore equation above can
be expressed as,

Therefore, to maximize power,

→
Equation above shows that the power extracted from the wind can
be controlled by varying the dc bus voltage, which is a function of If
and ωe.
we know that the maximum power point is given when

where ωR is the wind turbine rotor speed. equation above can

be written as

where Pmech is the mechanical power generated, Vdc is the

rectified dc voltage, ωe is the electrical angular speed and ωR is
the rotor speed. Considering equation above , it holds that,

→ =0
Then, the function P(Vdc) has a single point where maximum power extraction is
achieved. It also means that the maximum power can be tracked by searching the
rectified dc power, rather than environmental conditions, such as wind speed and
direction.
Fig. 23: Maximum power tracking process.
 DC/DC converter controller *
The maximum power tracker will generate a reference voltage. This reference
voltage will be used to control the dc voltage at the rectifier dc side terminals.
The dc-to-dc converter uses a simple feedback controller. The reference voltage
generated by the maximum power tracker is compared to the actual voltage, and
the error signal is fed to a PI controller. The PI controller is used to adjust the
duty cycle of the converter switch. This control method is simple and robust, and
can be implemented easily. Shown in Fig. 17 is a block diagram of the controller.
 * DC/AC inverter controller
The inverter allows synchronizing the variable frequency generation of the
generator, to a fixed voltage and frequency waveform. This allows the transfer
of energy from the wind turbine system to the utility grid. There are many
ways to control a voltage source inverter, a current control voltage source
pulse-width modulation control strategy will be used. This method is ideal for
controlling the dc side voltage of the inverter (Vo). The controller varies the
amplitude of the output current of the inverter in order to keep the dc voltage
constant. Two feedback loops are used in this controller, the inner loop controls
the amplitude of the current and the outer loop controls the dc side voltage