Chemistry Subject Area

Methodology II
Method of evaluation of chemistry
• A curriculum is a compilation of study materials that
are used at all grade levels, classroom and home
work, assignments and a set of teacher guides.
• It also includes a list of prescribed methodology and
guidelines of teaching.
• Chemistry curriculum is developed for high schools
for teaching at different levels.
• It consists of the subject matter including teacher
and student roles that provide a setting for academic
activities and learning opportunities.
 Methods---
• Teachers are primarily engaged in implementing the
curriculum and have great role of delivering the
curriculum in the class room effectively.
• Teachers to deliver effective curriculum they must be able
to identify the qualities of the design, the contents,
teaching methods or experiences, educational facilities
and organization of the curriculum.
• For proper and effective implementation teachers should
evaluate the curriculum to understand the objectives, the
contents and how well it can accomplish what it set out to
achieve.
 Methods---
• Curriculum evaluation is the assessment of the
merit and worth of a program of studies, a field of
study or a course of study.
• Curriculum is evaluated for different purposes.
• As a teacher, to implement the curriculum you are
expected to evaluate its effectiveness in terms of
its objectives, contents , student experience,
organization and structure, teaching methods,
teacher support materials and ease of application.
 Methods---
• Although evaluation has only on basic goal which is
determination of the worth or value, it has many roles.
• Curriculum is evaluated for different purposes.
• One of the functions of curriculum evaluation is determining
the value of the curriculum itself (Saylor et al, 1981).
• Curriculum can be evaluated in terms of the content
selection, sequence and presentation.
• The effectiveness of the curriculum material, specification of
instructional objectives on which the material is based and
the appropriateness of the materials are some other points
for curriculum evaluation.
 Methods---
• Evaluation judges characteristics such as selection of the
contents, the sequence, presentation and the
statements of the objectives in terms of behaviors that
are desired to be acquired and their precision.
• The organization is evaluated based on the maturity, the
interest and readiness of the learner, the difficulty of
items to be learned and relationship between items to
be learned.
• The correlation and continuity of the curriculum with
lower and higher grade chemistry curriculum is one part
of the evaluation.
 Methods---
• Evaluation judges characteristics such as selection of the
contents, the sequence, presentation and the
statements of the objectives in terms of behaviors that
are desired to be acquired and their precision.
• The organization is evaluated based on the maturity, the
interest and readiness of the learner, the difficulty of
items to be learned and relationship between items to
be learned.
• The correlation and continuity of the curriculum with
lower and higher grade chemistry curriculum is one part
of the evaluation.
 Methods---
• In evaluating the content, you should focus on whether the
topics are related to those learned at lower grade are
sequenced from the simple to complex and are to the level of
the students.
• The objectives of the curriculum should provide guidance for the
curriculum implementers to adjust themselves accordingly to
reach curriculum goals.
• The objectives of a curriculum can be evaluated using the
Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives using the six
cognitive domains.
• These cognitive domains are arranged hierarchically in six
categories which are:
• 1. Knowledge 2. Comprehension 3. Application
• 4. Analysis 5. Synthesis 6. Evaluation.
 Methods---
• These cognitive domains can be used as a
criterion for investigating the objectives in the
curriculum guides.
• The objectives in the curriculum guides can be
assessed in terms of the action verbs used and
should be assigned to the best category in the
taxonomy.
• This will help you to see the distribution of
objectives in the six categories.
 Evaluating text book
• There are different techniques to evaluate students’ text books to
find their strengths and weaknesses.
• Some these techniques are, the use of Bloom’s taxonomy, a
qualitative analysis of the narratives, figures, questions etc;
analysis of conceptual development and analysis of the inquiry
level of the text.
• Text books can also be rated based on the type of questions raised.
• Some question may be lower-order questions which require a
single immediate answer (close-ended questions).
• Some other questions may be higher order questions which
require students to give more than one answer and which may
take time (open-ended questions).
 Assignment
1. Use Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives, the cognitive domain, to analyze
– Grade 9 text book
– Grade 10 text book
• In each case assign the action verbs in the objectives written to one of the six categories. Which of the six
categories are missing or are given less emphasis and which ones are dominating? Interpret the data you
obtained and draw your conclusion.
2. Indentify questions asked in each of the chapters in grade 9 or 10 text book and assign each question to
one of the following categories:
a) Answer can be obtained directly from the text.
b) Definition
c) Question requires student to apply learning from the chapter to new situations.
d) Question requires student to solve a problem.
e) Interpret the data you obtained and draw your conclusion.
3. How many figures are included in the text book (Grade 9 or 10)? Analyze each figure or diagram and assign
it to one or more of the following categories:
f) Used strictly for illustrative purposes.
g) Requires students to perform some activity or to use data.
h) Interpret the data you obtained and draw your conclusion.
4. Check the vertical relationship of grade 9 text book with grade 10 chemistry text book and interpret the
data you obtained and draw your conclusion.
5. Check the horizontal relationship of grade 9 chemistry text book with grade 9 physics or mathematics
textbook
6. Check the horizontal relationship of grade 10 chemistry text book with grade 10 physics or mathematics
textbook
 Planning and Teaching Chemistry

• Lesson planning and preparation are critical aspects of

teaching and learning.
• Planning is the process of deciding what and how the
students should learn.
• Teachers make such decision in the process of teaching.
• Lesson planning is always done before the lesson is taught,
which means it is towards the preparation for the class and
not only in respect of the written material.
• When lesson plans have been well thought out and prepared
in accordance, lessons will go much more smoothly and it
will be easier for students to achieve the goals of the lesson.
 Planning---
• Planning your teaching allows you to follow clear and
precise goals to effectively convey the materials you teach
in an understandable manner.
• It makes you gain confidence in what you are teaching
before going in front of students.
• Planning benefits both the teacher and the student, since
both enjoy the process due to the well thought of strategy
and method involved.
• It is important that as a teacher you are expected to spend
sufficient time planning and preparing lesson plans prior to
teaching the lesson.
 Planning---
The following are guidelines for preparing effective lesson plan:
• Determine exactly what you want to teach. i.e. the lesson.
• This will be done based on the curriculum and grade level you
are teaching.
• Once you have a determinate idea of what to teach, start
developing how to teach the topic.
• Set clear objectives. These objectives should not be activities.
• Each objective should convey what you want to know to teach
and what you want the student to know and understand.
• Objectives communicate to learners what is expected from them
when they are shared with learners.
• Instructional objective must be specific, outcome-based, and
measurable and they must describe learner behavior.
• Lesson is constructed to reach one or more specific objectives.
 Planning---
• Describe the learning activities. Lay out instructions step by step for each
lesson. Develop a specific outline of each step in a lesson. Include what you
and your students will do during the lesson (teachers and learners
activities).
• Determine how to connect the previous lesson with the new lesson. This
transitioning into a new lesson from a previous lesson will allow the new
lesson to build on the older lesson.
• Include activities that help learners apply their learning to new situations
on contents that allow to work in groups, in pairs or independently.
• Include evaluation points in your lesson plan to access the students’
comprehension of the lesson.
• Evaluation accesses each learner’s attachment of the objective. Include
oral, written or applied performance assessments. Your assessment items
should align specifically to your lesson objective.
• Use appropriate lesson plan format in which you can include the major
components of your plan.
 Lesson plan format

• Use the following format as guidance in preparing

lesson plan:
1. Preliminary part
Subject: ______________ Date of session: _______
Students: Male _____ Female _____ Total: _____ Level
of group/year __________
Title of session: ________________________________
Specific learning objectives:
– By the end of the session the students will be able
to………….
• Ensure your objectives are SMART – Specific,
Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time limited
 Lesson Plan Format
2. The main body:
Time Teacher activity Time Student Time Assessment activity
activity

Indicate Include details of Indicate Include Indicate how Identify the methods you have chosen to assess
how what you will be how details of the much time is the knowledge, skills and understanding of the
much doing; introducing the much activities the spent on students. Most of the assessment you will do
time is session; giving time is students will each throughout the lesson will be to help you to
spent on instructions, spent on do and the assessment improve your teaching and facilitate the students’
each intervening to each expected activity by learning. You will be able to identify
activity facilitate students’ activity outcome of the students misconceptions and intervene immediately. It is
by you learning; summarising by the the task worth recording students who make significant
key points students progress or who have significant difficulties. When
Include the key assessing it is important to consider what you will
questions you will ask do with the information, i.e. how you will use it to
the students in order support the students. The methods may include
to check listening to pair/group discussion, observation of
understanding and to an activity , students’ written work, problem
challenge them solving, presentation, quiz, display, marking
further written work, etc.
 Lesson Plan Format
3. Last part:
• Resources: include the materials that you will use in your
session. Remember to include any different, additional or
altered resources for students with special needs.
• Learner support: how do you support all learners? How do
you support those who have difficulty understanding the
work? How do you support those students who complete
the work quickly?
• Evaluation Focus: this could be any aspect of the session
but should be decided before the session; e.g. assessment,
classroom management, active learning methods, etc.
 Assessment methods

• An assessment incorporates a wide variety of tools for

informing and improving instruction, for helping teachers
and students improve their understanding of content, and
for evaluating student performance and establishing
grades.
• Teachers have a responsibility to not rely on only one or
two major assessment tools in their chemistry course.
• Some students excel in writing, some in math; while others
may be strong speakers or artists.
• Some students are pressured by written exams, some are
not.
 Assessment---
• The evaluation of students learning must use a
combination of different assessment tools along with the
corresponding planning and follow-up activities.
• Teachers must first answer a very important question:
“Do you want to know how well your students are
learning?” teachers who really want to know what their
students know and understand will assess and reflect
every day.
• Teachers should welcome evaluations of all types.
• Proper assessment will be used to continually adjust the
classroom environment to improve learning.
 Assessment---
• An assessment of a chemistry lesson can be measures using a
quiz, lab practical exam, written exam, or student satisfaction
survey (formal); or can be evaluated through observations or
conversation.
• A formative assessment is accomplished during the learning
process (as knowledge is “formed”), which includes
observing classroom and laboratory activities, posing
questions during a lesson, taking a poll, or having an informal
conversation.
• A summative assessment is performed at periodic intervals to
assess a collection of knowledge at a particular point in time.
• A summative assessment includes quizzes, exams, lab
reports, and term papers.
 Assessment---
• Classroom assessment is broadly defined as any activity or
experience that provides information about student learning.
• Teachers learn about student progress not only through
formal tests, examinations, and project, but also through
moment-by-moment observation of student in action.
• They often conduct assessment through instructional
activities.
• They are encouraged to use a range of assessment
techniques that are appropriate to the learning activities of
the students in order to fulfill the primary aim of assessment
which is to support learning.
 Assessment---
• Much of students’ learning is internal.
• To assess students’ science knowledge, skills and strategies, and
attitudes you require a variety of tools and approaches.
• You ask questions, observe students engage in a variety of learning
activities and processes, and examine student work in progress.
• You should engage students in peer-assessment and self-
assessment activities.
• The information that you and your students gain from assessment
activities informs and shapes what happens in the classroom;
assessment always implies that some action will follow.
• To determine whether student learning outcomes have been
achieved, student assessment must be an integrated part of
teaching and learning.
 Assessment---
• In developing assessment tasks and methods
you determine:
– What you are assessing
– Why you are assessing
– How the assessment information will be used
– Who will receive the assessment information and
– What assessment activities or tasks will allow
students to demonstrate their learning in
authentic ways
 Assessment---
• Effective assessment demonstrates the following
characteristics:
– Congruent with instruction, and integral to it;
– Ongoing and continuous;
– Based on authentic tasks and meaningful science-learning
processes and contexts;
– Based on criteria that students know and understand, appealing
to their strengths;
– A collaborative process involving students;
– Multidimensional, and uses a wide range of tools and methods;
and
– Focused on what students have learned and can do.
 Assessment---
• Assessment requires teachers to be aware continually of the
purpose of instruction: what do I want my students to learn? What
can they do to show that they have learned it?
• Assessment is intended to inform students of the programming
emphases and to help them focus on important aspects of learning.
• If teachers assess only the elements that are easiest to measure,
students may focus only on those things.
• For example, if science courses place a high value on collaboration,
creativity, and divergent thinking, and then assessment tools and
processes must reflect those values.
• The ways teachers assess (what and how) inform students of what is
considered important in learning.
 Language in Teaching Chemistry
• Language is an important tool for communication.
• It is used for expression of ideas and feelings of individuals.
• Language is central to learning.
• It is what we use to covey meanings of concepts,
expression of ideas and representation of phenomena.
• In chemistry we use symbols, formulas, equations and
words to teach our students different chemical concepts.
• Language is context-development and the meanings
attached to language are derived from experience.
• Teaching chemical language is like teaching a new language.
 Language---
• Language enables individuals to engage socially, initially within
the family, and later in an ever-widening network of
relationships and cultural experiences.
• It enables individuals to give expression to their feelings, ideas
and concerns.
• It is through language that they communicate their personal
needs and claim their rightful place in society. Language is
central to learning.
• It is the primary tool through which teachers mediate and
through which students learn across the whole curriculum.
• Much of what the student learns and the way he/she learns
comes from the interaction of language and experience.
 Language---
• Reading skills development of students is the result of effort made by
the faculty as a whole rather than by each teacher acting independently.
• But as a chemistry teacher you should help students in developing best
reading skills which help them understand the subject.
• Chemistry students should be good readers that can process English
automatically when they read their chemistry text books.
• They decode well, and they have large vocabularies.
• When new ideas are introduced, students encounter many unfamiliar
words or familiar ones in unfamiliar context.
• They can do much of the work needed to learn the history, the
unfamiliar words or familiar words with unfamiliar context.
• The effort of students to develop their skill must be supported by
teachers making use of their superior knowledge and experience.
 Language---
• Students need to develop oral language for sharing the ideas they
have learned, asking good questions, and seeking and sharing
information.
• Oral language play a critical role in students overall academic
progress.
• Spoken language and ordinary writing allows readers and
listeners to infer meanings.
• The development of reading skills and oral language is the result
of the effort made by teachers as well as students in the process
of learning.
• You are expected to make sure that students develop their
reading skills and oral language when teaching different concepts
by encouraging them to read subject contents and express their
views.
Teaching chemistry using
concept analysis
 Concepts
• A concept is roughly defined as a mental
grouping (categorization) of different entities
into a single category on the basis of some
underlying similarity – some way in which all
the entities are alike, some common core that
makes them all, in some sense, the same
thing.
 Concepts---
• Chemical concepts are ideas about matter.
Each concept is represented by a single word
or phrase that has the same meaning as the
whole chemical idea.
Examples:-Acid, Base, Mole, Mixture, Titration,
Substance, Element, Hydrocarbon, Triple
bond, Mass, Chemical Symbol etc
 Concepts---
• For example, when we say element, we are
talking about the concept of being element.
How do students grasp the concept of being
an element?
• Categorization seems to have something to do
with one’s grasp of the concept of being an
element.
 Concepts---
• Words are one way to describe and name
concepts, they are used as labels for concepts.
"Dog", "boat" and "tree" are example of words that
are labels for objects.
• When a concept is named, the word is a label that
maps onto our conceptual structure.
• With object-type concepts, such as "dog", the word
maps into a category that describes this particular
type of animal, with all its possible variations in
terms of dog size, color, etc.
 Concepts---
As you plan any chemical concept lesson, consider the following
questions.
• What is the name most commonly associated with the concept?
• What is the concept’s definition?
• What are the critical attributes of the concept?
• What non-critical attributes are associated with the concept?
• What are some interesting, learner-relevant examples or cases of
the concept that can be used during the lesson?
• What are some contrasting non-examples that help clarify and
illustrate the concept?
• What are the most interesting and efficient media that can be
used to teach the concept?
 Concepts---
• In concept learning and teaching, it is
necessary to analyze the meanings of the
concept thoroughly.
• The technique used in analyzing the meanings
of a concept is simply called Concept Analysis.
 Concepts---
• Concept analysis involves different elements that are critical in teaching a lesson. The
elements of a concept analysis are exemplified by taking the concept Mole.
• The Concept Name. A concept analysis begins by naming the concept under analysis.
Example: Mole
• A Definition. The definition of the concept names the critical attributes and states
the relationship among them.
Example: A mole is the amount of substance of a system that contains as many
elementary entities as there are carbon atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12. The
elementary entity must be specified and may be an atom, a molecule, an ion, an
electron, etc., or a specified group of such particles.
• Critical (Defining) Attributes. These are those features that must be present for an
instance to be considered an example of the concept.
Example: C1. Mole refers to an amount of substance.
C2. A mole contains 6.02 x 10 23 elementary entities.
C3. The elementary entity must be specified.
 Concepts---
• Although an adequate definition of a concept always includes the
all critical attributes, in practice a definition identifies only some
aspects of the essential characteristics (critical or defining
attributes). Essential characteristics are the criteria one uses to
judge whether or not an item is an example of that concept.
• Variable Attributes. These are those features that really do not
matter; they may be present or absent in examples or non-
examples.
• Example: V1. Kind of elementary entity considered.
• V2. Units used to describe amount. (Each unit used must have an
associated principle that relates amount in terms of that unit to
amount in terms of number of elementary entities; e.g., “there are
500 sheets in a ream of paper.”)
 Concepts---
• Since there are an infinite number of variable
attributes for any concept, mention only those
that might cause confusion.
• What to include in a list of variable attributes
depends on the purpose.
• For instance, while preparing a concept lesson
for grade 8 students, you might include items
that would be omitted in a lesson for grade 11
students.
 Concepts---
• Supraordinate, Coordinate, and Subordinate Concepts. An
understanding of a concept often involves knowing the supraordinate,
coordinate, and subordinate concepts to which it is related.
• Supraordinate concepts are at a higher level of generality than the
concept under analysis.
• Example: Measures of amount of substance is supraordinate concept for
mole. The target concept (e.g., mole) is always an example of a
supraordinate concept (e.g., measures of amount of substance).
• Coordinate concepts are at the same level of generality as the target
concept.
• Example: Mass, number of particles and volume are at the same level of
generality as mole because they all are examples of the supraordinate
concept measures of amount of substance. Therefore, mole, mass,
number of particles and volume are coordinate concepts.
 Concepts---
• Subordinate concepts are at a lower level of generality than the target
concept.
• Example: Mole of atoms, mole of molecules and mole of electrons are
subordinate concepts for mole.
• Note that concept analyses could never include exhaustive lists of
supraordinate, coordinate and subordinate concepts. However, a few
examples are commonly included to place the target concept within a
larger context.
• Examples. Examples in a concept analysis should be as divergent as
possible. They set the boundaries for the class under discussion. If all
examples are similar, the boundaries are not clear. Usually, at least one
example is given for every variable attribute that might cause confusion. In
some cases, the collection of examples rather than a specific example
demonstrates that an attribute varies across examples and non-examples.
 Concepts---
• Non-Examples. Attributes that are critical are
clarified through non-examples.
• Non-examples lack one or more of the critical
attributes of the concept.
• At least one non-example must be given for each
critical attribute to provide the needed clarity.
• Non-examples are often matched with examples so
that the non-example is as near in likeness to the
examples as possible but is still lacking some
attribute that is critical.
 Concepts---
• DEFINITION:
• A mixture is an aggregate of two or more substances or phases of a single
substance, each of which can be identified by one or more characteristic
property.
• CRITICAL ATTRIBUTES
• C1. Contains two or more substances or phases.
• C2. Each component can be identified on some basis.
• VARIABLE ATTRIBUTES
• V1. Components of the mixture.
• V2. Number of components.
• V3. Kind and number of phases.
• SUPRAORDINATE CONCEPTS: Substance, matter.
• COORDINAT CONCEPTS: pure substance.
• SUORDINATECONCEPTS: homogeneous mixture, heterogeneous mixture.
 Concepts---
• Examples No examples
• Milk Water
• Air Nitrogen gas
• Ethanol and water Water, Ethanol
• Cement Magnesium
• Brick Aluminum
• Smoke in air Chlorine gas
• Oil and water Oil, Water
• Ice and water Ice; water.
 Concepts---
Events as Concepts
• The universe consists of objects and events. Both
objects and events are needed to represent
knowledge about the universe and its contents.
• We usually think of events as happenings such as a
"party" or a "meeting". Happenings, however, include
changes in status like occurrences or improvements.
• For example, "increase in quality of education" is an
event-type concept, and so are "adoption of
constructivism" and "growth of plants".
 Concepts---
Do the following activity on concept analysis.
• Organize yourself into a group of three students (your peers in this
course). As a group identify two chemical concepts from grade 9 or
grade 10 chemistry contents.
• Individually conduct concept analysis for both concepts using the
procedures in this section.
• Exchange your concept analyses among the three of you and comment
on each other’s concept analyses. Document your differences and
suggest reasons for the differences and/or disagreements.
• Write down the concept analyses for both concepts that three of you
came to a consensus. (These constitute the group’s concept analyses.
• Present your concept analyses to your class and see if there could be
differences with other students.
 Concepts---
CONCEPT ANALYSIS FORMAT
• Concept name:
• Concept definition:
• Superordinate concept (Subsumer):
• Coordinate concepts:
• Subordinate concepts:
• Prerequisite concepts:
• Critical features (defining attributes):
• Irrelevant features or attributes:
• Learner relevant examples:
• Learner relevant non-examples:
 Concepts---
• Critical
– Define the concept
– Required for delivery of reinforcement
– Comprise the Sd
• Variable
– Accompany, but do not define the concept
– Are not required for reinforcement
 Concepts---
• Using mammal as an example:
a. Critical attributes
(1) body covered by hair, fur, or wool
(2) mammary glands
(3) lungs
(4) 4 limbs (arms, legs, flippers, paddles, etc.)
(5) give birth to living young (exceptions:
duckbilled platypus, spiny anteater)
(6) two parents
(7) capable of movement
 Concepts---
• b. Non-critical attributes
(1) color
(2) sex/gender
(3) size
(4) age
(5) number of parents after birth
(6) dietary habits
(7) life span
Teaching chemistry using concept mapping

• New concepts are learned in connection to

other concepts students already know.
• Such relationships constitute a large part of
student’s knowledge.
• The relationships among concepts are shown
using concept maps.
 ---concept mapping
• A concept map is a concrete representation of
abstract ideas.
• Concept mapping is a teaching and learning
strategy which helps students to organize
concepts into hierarchies.
• It is a diagrammatic or schematic
representation of the meaningful relationships
among concepts.
 ---concept mapping
• New knowledge (or new concept) acquires its
meaning through relationships with existing
knowledge (or concepts) and meaningful
learning occurs when new knowledge is
consciously related to relevant concepts which
the student already possesses.
 ---concept mapping
• Concept mapping enhances meaningful learning by
leading students “away from rote learning and toward
true understanding of concepts and their relationships.”
• Concept mapping is a useful tool for helping students
learn about the structure of knowledge and the process of
knowledge production or meta-knowledge.
• Concept mapping has been found not only useful in
promoting students’ understanding of science concepts
but also in facilitating students’ abilities to solve problems
and to answer questions that require application and
synthesis of concepts.
 ---concept mapping
• Concept maps represent the relationships between
concepts in the form of sentences or propositions.
• A proposition is two or more concept labels joined by a
linking word that describes how they relate to each
other.
Eg:- Graphite is Black

• Concept maps are thus two-dimensional diagrams

showing concept labels connected by lines with words
written on each line to describe a relationship
between the concepts.
 ---concept mapping
• Concept map is one of the means teachers can
use to help their students to understand
chemical topics.
• It is a teaching aid (instructional media) by
which connections and relation of concepts
are presented in an obvious way.
 ---concept mapping
In general, concept maps:
• Are systematic devices or diagrams of a set of concept meanings and how
they relate to each other.
• Can help both teachers and students select and recognize the key ideas
they must focus on to achieve a specific learning task.
• Can provide a kind of ‘road map’ that shows how we link different concepts
through propositions.
• Can help with revision: if one is drawn up after a learning-task has been
completed, it will provide a diagrammatic summary of what has been
learned.
• Can help, if drawn up by oneself, us see clearly what we personally
understand by a concept, and the limitations of our understanding.
• Can help, after being drawn up by one self, us recognize new relationships
and meanings (or at least meanings we were not consciously aware of
before making the map). Thus, concept mapping can be a creative activity
and can help to stimulate creativity for teachers and learners
 ---concept mapping
When you develop concept map take into consideration the following
main points.
1. Identify a focus question that addresses the problem, issues or
knowledge domain you wish to map. Guided by this question,
identify the concepts that are pertinent to the question and list
these. You may find it helpful to list the concepts on Post-It notes
so they can be moves around. You may also use a computer
program. Concept labels should be one word, and at most two or
three words.
2. Rank orders the concepts by placing the broadest and most
inclusive concepts. Sometimes this process leads to modification
of the focus question or writing a new focus question.
3. Word down the list and add more concepts as needed.
 ---concept mapping
4. Begin to build your map by placing the most inclusive, moat general
concept(s) at the top. Usually there will only be one, two or three more
general concepts at the top of map.
5. Next, select the three or four sub-concepts to place under each general
concept. Avoid placing more than three or four concepts under any other
concept. If there seem to be more than that under a concept or sub-
concept, it is usually possible to identify a suitable concept of intermediate
inclusiveness, thus creating another level of hierarchy in your map.
6. Connect the concepts by lines. Label the lines with one or two linking
words. The linking words should define the relationship between the two
concepts so that it reads as a valid statement or proposition. The
connection creates meaning. When you hierarchically link together a large
number of related ideas, you can see the structure of meaning for a given
structure domain.
 ---concept mapping
7. Rework the structure of your map, which may include adding,
subtracting, or changing concepts. You may need to do this rework
several times, and in fact this process can go on indefinitely as you gain
new knowledge or new insights. This is where Post-Its are helpful, or
better still, computer programs.
8. Look for cross-links between concepts in different concepts in different
sections of the map and label these lines. Cross-links can often help to
see new, creative relationships in the knowledge domain.
9. Specific examples of concepts can be attached to the concept labels
(e.g. Golden Retriever is a specific example of a dog breed).
10. Concept maps could be made in many different forms for the same set
of concepts. There is no one way to draw a concept map. As your
understanding of relationships between concepts changes, so will your
maps.
 ---concept mapping
The steps below relate to teaching students to draw a concept map on
the familiar topic “water and its changes of state.”
• Identity ideas related to the topic of “water and its changes of
states.” Example: liquid, ice, solid, steam, water vapor, gas,
condensation, freezing, boiling, evaporation, and so forth.
• Write ideas on pieces of card or paper.
• Arrange ideas which are related close together, e.g. ice, solid, water,
liquid, steam, water vapor and gas.
• Put most general ideas at the top, e.g. matter, followed by changes,
followed by state and so forth.
• Draw lines between related ideas.
• Write words on lines drawn to describe relationships between ideas.
 ---concept mapping
Develop concept maps for the following chemical
concepts:
– Redox reactions
– Mole
– Chemical equilibrium
– Hydrocarbons
• Exchange your concept maps for each chemical
concept with at least two of your peers and
compare and contrast your concept maps
 Misconceptions in chemistry
• Chemistry is a very conceptual subject, and many of its concepts
are rather abstract.
• One of the widely recognized issues in teaching chemistry, indeed
in teaching the sciences more generally, is that students very
commonly develop alternative ideas about science topics.
• This means that the teacher’s job is not usually to move students
from a state of ignorance to a state of knowledge, but more often
to shift student thinking away from existing ways of understanding
the world.
• These alternative ideas have been given various labels by
researchers (such as alternative conceptions, conceptual
frameworks, intuitive theories) but they are commonly referred to
as misconceptions (Taber, 2009b).
 Misconceptions---
• Where students come to class with their own
alternative conceptions about science topics, this
can often mean that even a teaching presentation
that is effectively planned from the perspective of
the conceptual structure of chemistry, may be
misunderstood because the learners interpret
teaching in terms of their existing ways of thinking.
• Effective teaching requires the teacher to learn to
see the material from the student’s perspective (at
the «learners’ resolution»).
 Misconceptions---
• The particular knowledge that is constructed by an individual will be
affected by their learners prior knowledge and experience and the
social context in which learning takes place.
• Students preexisting beliefs influence how students learn new scientific
knowledge and play on essential role in subsequent learning.
• Children difficulties in science occur because students’ concepts before
teaching are not taken into account and therefore, communication
between teachers and learners cannot overcome.
• These ideas are logical, sensible and valuable from the student’s point
of view. Strongly held by the students, but may be significantly different
from accepted scientific view points and may not be in conformity with
the true or the scientific explanation (Osborne, 1982).
• It was also found that beliefs are widely held by learners in various
grade levels and are fairly stable and resistant to change by
conventional teaching strategies.
 Misconceptions---
Sources of students’ misconceptions
• Misconceptions in chemistry have been identified to originate
from different sources.
• Students’ strong preference for common-sense reasoning,
everyday analogies visible effects and changes, and common
(non-scientific) word usage leads them into many
misunderstandings.
• Some classes of preconceptions are culturally specific, a product
of the analysis and metaphors common in particular cultures or
built into particular languages rather than being unusual.
• Teachers have the responsibility of leading students to the
correct use of analysis and metaphors by indicating their
limitations to avoid misconceptions arising from different
analysis and metaphors.
 Misconceptions---
Sources---
• Many alternative conceptions may be generated by students
as they grapple with information and models presented in
school which they are unprepared to imagine or understand.
• The teaching of atomic theory before students have fully
explored the nature of matter at a macroscopic level will make
them not to rely on atomic theory in explanation of physical
phenomena.
• The difficulty of students not believing in something they can’t
see and chemistry in predominantly occurring on the most
abstract level, the symbolic level contributes to
misconceptions observed in chemistry.
 Misconceptions---
Sources---
• Misconceptions in chemistry have been identified to originate
from different sources.
• Students’ strong preference for common-sense reasoning,
everyday analogies visible effects and changes, and common
(non-scientific) word usage leads them into many
misunderstandings.
• Some classes of preconceptions are culturally specific, a product
of the analysis and metaphors common in particular cultures or
built into particular languages rather than being unusual.
• Teachers have the responsibility of leading students to the
correct use of analysis and metaphors by indicating their
limitations to avoid misconceptions arising from different
analysis and metaphors.
 Misconceptions---
Some of these possible sources of students’ misconceptions are:
1. Prior knowledge and experiences of the learners which are
not compatible with scientific concepts.
2. The use of everyday languages and metaphors which have
different meaning from chemistry terminologies.
3. Students not properly taught different basic concepts at
micro level.
4. Teachers not properly understanding and teaching concepts
and lack of knowledge of students misunderstanding.
5. Students lacking visualization of models of concepts.
6. The nature and proper sequencing of the concepts learning.
 Misconceptions---
The abstract Nature of chemistry
• Chemistry is a very conceptual subject, and many of its concepts
are rather abstract.
• So whereas some chemical terms refer to materials students can
see and manipulate (solution, sulfur, sodium) or at least processes
they can observe directly (combustion, distillation, mixing), many
refer to ideas that are not so easily demonstrated.
• So students cannot be directly shown atoms, electrons, covalent
bonds or delocalized electron clouds.
• The phenomena of chemistry (i. e. chemical changes) can be
readily shown to students, but the explanations depend upon
highly abstract concepts, normally involving hypothetical
submicroscopic entities.
 Misconceptions---
• Interestingly, many of misconceptions in chemistry relate to the
abstract entities used in chemical explanations at the level of
atoms and molecules.
• A great deal of the explanatory framework of modern chemistry
depends upon models of the structure of matter at sub-
microscopic levels (in terms of atoms and molecule and
electrons and bonds).
• Of course it is not possible to show students these entities, as
they are much too small to be seen.
• (Data collected in such devices as tunneling electron
microscopes may be used to produce images, but these are
reconstructed indirectly, not actually based on magnified vision.)
• This means we have to offer students various representations
that capture something of the conjectured nature of the
molecules and ions that we want them to use as explanatory
concepts.
 Misconceptions---
• We commonly use pictures and models, but these inevitably
only offer a weak representation of the ideas we are trying to
teach.
• The molecules and atoms and electrons of science are not
discretely bound objects, but rather fuzzy fields of force with
no sharp edges or surfaces.
• They are not particles in the normal everyday sense, but
something else (they have been called quanticles).
• However our teaching models made of plastic balls connected
with springs (for example) cannot reflect this (figure 3).
• Students commonly have real difficulty understanding how the
very unfamiliar nature of the molecular world is used in
chemistry to explain the familiar properties of chemical
substances (Taber, 2001).
 Misconceptions---
The use of everyday language and metaphors in chemistry
• Chemistry in common with all sciences has a distinctive vocabulary
of words with very specific meanings.
• A major part of teaching and learning chemistry is to approach this
language in a way that assists students in development of their
understanding of chemical concepts.
• Evidence suggests that difficulties may arise because teachers are
unaware of the meanings and problems beginning chemists have
with these terms, contributing to poor learning of the basic concepts
they represent.
• Students meet many different terms in chemistry each with a
specific meaning to chemists.
• In learning the basic ideas, these are often confused.
 Misconceptions--
Examples of misconceptions in chemistry:
• Air has no mass.
• Air is everywhere, fills all space
• A kilogram of stone weighs more than a kilogram of cotton.
• Heat can add weight to the object being heated.
• The weight of a substance changes when it changes phase.
• A charged body has only one kind of charge.
• Melting and dissolving are the same thing.
• Salt becomes liquid salt when it dissolves.
• A rusting nail won’t change weight. The rust was already in it.
• Bubbles from boiling water consist of air.
• Chemical reactions are reactions which produce irreversible change.
• A candle burning is endothermic, since heat is needed to initiate the reaction.
• Gold atoms are gold in color
• Molecules expand when heated.
• Water vapor molecules weigh less than ice molecules.
• Protons and electrons flow in opposite directions in electrolytes.
• Atoms have electrons circling them like planets around a star.
• Atoms form bonds in order to satisfy the octet rule.
 Misconceptions---
Assignment
• Identify other common misconceptions in
chemistry