Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach

Seventh Edition in SI Units

Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles
McGraw-Hill, 2011

THE SECOND LAW OF

THERMODYNAMICS

Dr P Karthikeyan, ME, PhD (IITM), PDF (USA)

Professor, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Objectives
• Introduce the second law of thermodynamics.
• Identify valid processes as those that satisfy both the first and second laws of
thermodynamics.
• Discuss thermal energy reservoirs, reversible and irreversible processes, heat
engines, refrigerators, and heat pumps.
• Describe the Kelvin–Planck and Clausius statements of the second law of
thermodynamics.
• Discuss the concepts of perpetual-motion machines.
• Apply the second law of thermodynamics to cycles and cyclic devices.
• Apply the second law to develop the absolute thermodynamic temperature scale.
• Describe the Carnot cycle.
• Examine the Carnot principles, idealized Carnot heat engines, refrigerators, and heat
pumps.
• Determine the expressions for the thermal efficiencies and coefficients of
performance for reversible heat engines, heat pumps, and refrigerators.

2
INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND LAW

Transferring
heat to a
paddle wheel
will not cause
it to rotate.
A cup of hot coffee does not
get hotter in a cooler room.
These processes cannot
Transferring occur even though they
heat to a wire are not in violation of the
will not first law.
generate
electricity.
3
 Processes occur in a certain direction, and not
in the reverse direction.

A process must satisfy both the first

and second laws of thermodynamics
to proceed.

MAJOR USES OF THE SECOND LAW

1. The second law may be used to identify the direction of processes.
2. The second law also asserts that energy has quality as well as quantity.
The first law is concerned with the quantity of energy and the
transformations of energy from one form to another with no regard to its
quality. The second law provides the necessary means to determine the
quality as well as the degree of degradation of energy during a process.
3. The second law of thermodynamics is also used in determining the
theoretical limits for the performance of commonly used engineering
systems, such as heat engines and refrigerators, as well as predicting the
degree of completion of chemical reactions.
4
THERMAL ENERGY RESERVOIRS

A source
supplies
energy in the
form of heat,
Bodies with relatively large thermal
and a sink
masses can be modeled as thermal
absorbs it.
energy reservoirs.
• A hypothetical body with a relatively large thermal energy capacity (mass x
specific heat) that can supply or absorb finite amounts of heat without
undergoing any change in temperature is called a thermal energy reservoir,
or just a reservoir.
• In practice, large bodies of water such as oceans, lakes, and rivers as well as
the atmospheric air can be modeled accurately as thermal energy reservoirs
because of their large thermal energy storage capabilities or thermal masses.
5
 HEAT ENGINES
The devices that convert heat to
work.
1. They receive heat from a high-
temperature source (solar energy,
oil furnace, nuclear reactor, etc.).
Work can always
2. They convert part of this heat to
be converted to
work (usually in the form of a
heat directly and
rotating shaft.)
completely, but the
reverse is not true. 3. They reject the remaining waste
heat to a low-temperature sink
(the atmosphere, rivers, etc.).
4. They operate on a cycle.
Heat engines and other cyclic
devices usually involve a fluid to
Part of the heat and from which heat is
received by a heat transferred while undergoing a
engine is converted to cycle. This fluid is called the
work, while the rest is working fluid.
rejected to a sink. 6
A steam power plant

A portion of the work output of

a heat engine is consumed
internally to maintain
continuous operation.

7
Thermal efficiency

Schematic of
a heat engine.

Some heat engines perform better

Even the most
than others (convert more of the
efficient heat
heat they receive to work).
engines reject
almost one-half
of the energy
they receive as
waste heat.

8
Can we save Qout?
In a steam power plant, the
condenser is the device
where large quantities of
waste heat is rejected to
rivers, lakes, or the
atmosphere.
Can we not just take the
condenser out of the plant
and save all that waste
energy?
The answer is, unfortunately,
a firm no for the simple
reason that without a heat
A heat-engine cycle cannot be completed without rejection process in a
rejecting some heat to a low-temperature sink. condenser, the cycle
cannot be completed.
Every heat engine must waste some energy
by transferring it to a low-temperature
reservoir in order to complete the cycle,
even under idealized conditions.
9
The Second Law of
Thermodynamics:
Kelvin–Planck Statement
It is impossible for any device
that operates on a cycle to
receive heat from a single
reservoir and produce a net
amount of work.

No heat engine can have a thermal

efficiency of 100 percent, or as for a
power plant to operate, the working fluid A heat engine that violates the
must exchange heat with the Kelvin–Planck statement of the
environment as well as the furnace. second law.
The impossibility of having a 100%
efficient heat engine is not due to friction
or other dissipative effects. It is a
limitation that applies to both the
idealized and the actual heat engines.
10
REFRIGERATORS AND HEAT PUMPS
Basic components of a
refrigeration system and
typical operating conditions.
• The transfer of heat from a low-
temperature medium to a high-
temperature one requires special
devices called refrigerators.
• Refrigerators, like heat engines,
are cyclic devices.
• The working fluid used in the
refrigeration cycle is called a
refrigerant.
• The most frequently used
refrigeration cycle is the vapor-
compression refrigeration
cycle.
In a household refrigerator, the freezer
compartment where heat is absorbed by
the refrigerant serves as the evaporator,
and the coils usually behind the
refrigerator where heat is dissipated to the
kitchen air serve as the condenser. 11
 Coefficient of Performance
The efficiency of a refrigerator is expressed
in terms of the coefficient of performance
(COP).
The objective of a refrigerator is to remove
heat (QL) from the refrigerated space.

The objective of a refrigerator is to Can the value of COPR be

remove QL from the cooled space.
greater than unity?
12
 The objective
Heat Pumps
of a heat
pump is to
supply heat
QH into the
warmer
space.

The work supplied

to a heat pump is
used to extract
energy from the
cold outdoors and
carry it into the
warm indoors.

Can the value of COPHP

be lower than unity?
for fixed values of QL and QH What does COPHP=1
represent? 13
 • Most heat pumps in operation today have a
seasonally averaged COP of 2 to 3.
• Most existing heat pumps use the cold outside air
as the heat source in winter (air-source HP).
• In cold climates their efficiency drops considerably
when temperatures are below the freezing point.
• In such cases, geothermal (ground-source) HP
that use the ground as the heat source can be
used.
• Such heat pumps are more expensive to install,
but they are also more efficient.
• Air conditioners are basically refrigerators whose
refrigerated space is a room or a building instead
of the food compartment.
When installed backward, • The COP of a refrigerator decreases with
an air conditioner decreasing refrigeration temperature.
functions as a heat pump. • Therefore, it is not economical to refrigerate to a
lower temperature than needed.

Energy efficiency rating (EER): The amount of

heat removed from the cooled space in Btu’s for 1
Wh (watthour) of electricity consumed. 14
The Second Law of
Thermodynamics: Clausius
Statement
It is impossible to construct a device that
operates in a cycle and produces no effect
other than the transfer of heat from a lower-
temperature body to a higher-temperature
body.

It states that a refrigerator cannot operate unless

its compressor is driven by an external power
source, such as an electric motor.
This way, the net effect on the surroundings
involves the consumption of some energy in the
form of work, in addition to the transfer of heat
from a colder body to a warmer one.
To date, no experiment has been conducted that
A refrigerator that violates
contradicts the second law, and this should be
the Clausius statement of
taken as sufficient proof of its validity.
the second law.
15
Equivalence of the Two Statements

Proof that the

violation of the
Kelvin–Planck
statement leads
to the violation
of the Clausius
statement.

The Kelvin–Planck and the Clausius statements are equivalent

in their consequences, and either statement can be used as
the expression of the second law of thermodynamics.
Any device that violates the Kelvin–Planck statement also
violates the Clausius statement, and vice versa. 16
 PERPETUAL-MOTION MACHINES

A perpetual-motion machine that

violates the second law of
A perpetual-motion machine that thermodynamics (PMM2).
violates the first law (PMM1).
Perpetual-motion machine: We have repeatedly stated that a process cannot
take place unless it satisfies both the first and second laws of thermodynamics.
Any device that violates either law is called a perpetual-motion machine, and
despite numerous attempts, no perpetual-motion machine is known to have
worked. But this has not stopped inventors from trying to create new ones. A
device that violates the first law (by creating energy) is called a PMM1. A device that
violates the second law is called a PMM2. Despite numerous attempts, no perpetual-
motion machine is known to have worked. If something sounds too good to be17true,
REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES
Reversible process: A process that can be reversed without leaving any trace on
the surroundings.
Irreversible process: A process that is not reversible.
• All the processes occurring in nature are irreversible.
• Why are we interested in reversible processes?
• (1) they are easy to analyze and (2) they serve as
idealized models (theoretical limits) to which actual
processes can be compared.
• Some processes are more irreversible than others.
• We try to approximate reversible processes. Why?

Two familiar
reversible processes.
Reversible processes deliver the most
and consume the least work. 18
 • The factors that cause a process to be
irreversible are called irreversibilities.
Friction • They include friction, unrestrained expansion,
renders a mixing of two fluids, heat transfer across a finite
process temperature difference, electric resistance,
irreversible. inelastic deformation of solids, and chemical
reactions.
• The presence of any of these effects renders a
process irreversible.

Irreversibilities

(a) Heat
transfer through
a temperature
difference is Irreversible
irreversible, and compression
(b) the reverse and
process is expansion
impossible. processes. 19
 Internally and Externally Reversible Processes
• Internally reversible process: If no irreversibilities occur within the boundaries of
the system during the process.
• Externally reversible: If no irreversibilities occur outside the system boundaries.
• Totally reversible process: It involves no irreversibilities within the system or its
surroundings.
• A totally reversible process involves no heat transfer through a finite temperature
difference, no nonquasi-equilibrium changes, and no friction or other dissipative
effects.

A reversible process
involves no internal and
external irreversibilities. Totally and internally reversible heat
transfer processes. 20
THE CARNOT CYCLE

Execution of the Carnot cycle in a closed system.

Reversible Isothermal Expansion (process 1-2, TH = constant)
Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 2-3, temperature drops from TH to TL)
Reversible Isothermal Compression (process 3-4, TL = constant)
Reversible Adiabatic Compression (process 4-1, temperature rises from TL to TH21)
P-V diagram of the Carnot cycle. P-V diagram of the reversed
Carnot cycle.
The Reversed Carnot Cycle
The Carnot heat-engine cycle is a totally reversible cycle.
Therefore, all the processes that comprise it can be reversed,
in which case it becomes the Carnot refrigeration cycle.
22
THE CARNOT PRINCIPLES

The Carnot principles. Proof of the first Carnot principle.

1. The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the efficiency
of a reversible one operating between the same two reservoirs.
2. The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the same
two reservoirs are the same. 23
24
THE THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE
SCALE
A temperature scale that is independent
of the properties of the substances that
are used to measure temperature is
called a thermodynamic temperature
scale.
Such a temperature scale offers great
conveniences in thermodynamic
calculations.

The arrangement of
heat engines used to
develop the
thermodynamic
temperature scale.
25
 This temperature scale is
called the Kelvin scale,
and the temperatures on
this scale are called
absolute temperatures.

For reversible cycles, the A conceptual experimental setup

heat transfer ratio QH /QL to determine thermodynamic
can be replaced by the temperatures on the Kelvin scale
absolute temperature ratio by measuring heat transfers QH
TH /TL. and QL.
26
THE CARNOT HEAT ENGINE

The Carnot
heat engine
is the most
efficient of
all heat
engines
operating
between the
same high-
and low-
temperature No heat engine can have a higher
reservoirs. efficiency than a reversible heat engine
operating between the same high- and
Any heat Carnot heat low-temperature reservoirs.
engine engine

27
The Quality of Energy

Can we use
C unit for
temperature
The higher the temperature
here?
of the thermal energy, the
higher its quality.

The fraction of heat that How do you increase the thermal

can be converted to work
as a function of source
temperature.
efficiency of a Carnot heat engine?
How about for actual heat engines?
28
THE CARNOT REFRIGERATOR
AND HEAT PUMP
Any refrigerator or heat pump

Carnot refrigerator
or heat pump

How do you increase the

No refrigerator can have a higher COP COP of a Carnot
than a reversible refrigerator operating refrigerator or heat pump?
between the same temperature limits. How about for actual ones?
29
The COP of a reversible refrigerator or heat pump is the
maximum theoretical value for the specified temperature
limits.
Actual refrigerators or heat pumps may approach these
values as their designs are improved, but they can never
reach them.
The COPs of both the refrigerators and the heat pumps
decrease as TL decreases.
That is, it requires more work to absorb heat from lower-
temperature media.

30
1. During an experiment conducted in a room at
27oC, a laboratory assistant measures that a
refrigerator that draws 1.5 kW of power has
removed 20,000 kJ of heat from the refrigerated
space, which is maintained at -15oC. The running
time of the refrigerator during the experiment was
15 min. Determine if these measurements are
reasonable.

31
Solution: TH – 27 C – 300K;
TK –15C – 258K; WR-1.5
kW;QL-20,000 kJ@15 min

32
Solution: TH – 27 C – 300K;
TK –15C – 258K; Coefficient of Performance
WR-1.5 kW (kJ/s) = 1.5 x 15 of a refrigerator is expressed
The efficiency
in terms of the coefficient of performance
x 60 = 1350 kJ (COP).
QL-20,000 kJ@15 min The objective of a refrigerator is to remove
heat (Q ) from the refrigerated space.
COPR = QL/Wnet= L

20000/1350 = 14.8

COPRR =1/((300/258) -1)

= 6.14
Impossible
Refrigerator – Claim of
lab assistant is wrong.
33
2. A heat pump supplies heat energy to a house at the
rate of 1,40,000 kJ/h when the house is maintained at
25°C. Over a period of one month, the heat pump
operates for 100 hours to transfer energy from a heat
source outside the house to inside the house. Consider
a heat pump receiving heat from two different outside
energy sources. In one application the heat pump
receives heat from the outside air at 0°C. In a second
application the heat pump receives heat from a lake
having a water temperature of 10°C. If electricity costs
$0.085/kWh, determine the maximum money saved by
using the lake water rather than the outside air as the
outside energy source. 34
The objective
Heat Pumps
of a heat Given Data: TH – 25 C –
pump is to
supply heat298 K; TL1 (air) –0C –
QH into the
warmer 273K; TL2 (Lake water) –
space. 10 C – 283 K; Qh-144000
kJ/h; Operating time of
HP – 100 Hrs/month
Solution: Maximum
money saved by
considering lake water
compared with air as a
cold energy source.
35
 Case 1 Case 2

Case 1 : TH – 25 C – 298 K; TL1 (air) –0C – 273K;

Case 2 : TH – 25 C – 298 K; TL2 (lake water) –10C
– 283K; 36
Case 1 : TH – 25 C – 298 K; TL1 (air) –0C – 273K;

COPRHP =11.11,
QH=1,40,000 kJ/hr = 1,40,000/3600 = 38.88kW
Operating time for HP -100 hr
QH@month – 38.88 x 100 = 3888 kW.hr
1 kw.hr - $0.085; hence Amount spent – 3888 x
$0.085
= $330.48 (Electrical heater)
Case 2: HP1- WHP=?
COPRHP =11.11=QH/WHP = ? (Whp = 3.499 kW)
Whp@month – 3.499 x 100 = 349.9 kW.hr
1 kw.hr - $0.085; hence Amount spent – 349.9
37
x
Case 2 : TH – 25 C – 298 K; TL2 (lake water) –10C
– 283K;

Case 2: HP2- WHP=?

COPRHP = 19.86 =QH/WHP = ? (Whp = 1.957 kW)
Whp@month –1.957 x 100 = 195.7 kW.hr
1 kw.hr - $0.085; hence Amount spent – 195.7 x
$0.085 = $ 16.63(Lake water @ HP)
Money saved (Lake water and air) – $ 29.74 - $
16.63 = $ 13.11
Money saved (Electrical resistance heater and HP
lake water) – $ 330.48 - $ 16.63 = $ 313.85
38
3. A Carnot heat engine receives heat at 750 K and
rejects the waste heat to the environment at 300 K.
The entire work output of the heat engine is used
to drive a Carnot refrigerator that removes heat
from the cooled space at -15°C at a rate of 400
kJ/min and rejects it to the same environment at
300 K. Determine (a) the rate of heat supplied to
the heat engine and (b) the total rate of heat
rejection to the environment.
Given Data: Parallel system – Carnot Heat
engine drives Carnot Refrigerator.
Heat Engine - THHE – 750 K; TLHE -300 K;
WHE = WR
TLR- -15 C – 258 K; QLR - 400 kJ/min – 6.66 kW 39
 750 K 300 K
QHHE = 1.8 kW QHR = ?
WHE = WR = 1.08 kW
QLHE = QLR = 6.66 kW
300 K 258 K
Carnot Heat Engine Thermal Efficiency =
Carnot Refrigerator COP = ? = 0.6
= 6.14
40
Heat Engine Thermal
= WHE/QHHE
Efficiency =
COPRR = Desired Output/Wnet = QLR/WR
COPRR = 6.14=6.66/WR
WRR = 1.08 kW=WRHE --- (1)

0.6 = WHE/QHHE=1.08/QHHE
(i)The rate of heat supplied to the heat engine
QHHE=1.8 kW
(ii)The total rate of heat rejection to the
environment = QLHE + QHR=0.72 + 7.74 = 8.46 kW
QLHE=1.8-1.08 = 0.72 kW; 41
 Heat Rejection on Engine A
1800 K (QLHEA= QHHEB) Heat
Absorbed by Engine B
Also Eff.A=Eff.B
Combine both Heat Engine – Re
QLHEA HEC
QHHEB
Efficiency of Rev Heat Engine C
= 0.83 –

Efficiency of Engine A = Engine

300 K
= 1-T2/T1 = 1-T3/T2
= 1- T2/1800 = 1- 300/T2
T2 – 734.84 K
42
5.Two Carnot heat engines A and B are
connected in series between two thermal
reservoirs maintained at 1200 K and 300 K
respectively. Heat Engine A receives 1500 kJ of
heat from the high temperature reservoir and
rejects heat to the Carnot heat engine B. Heat
engine B takes in heat rejects by heat engine A
and rejects heat to the low temperature reservoir.
If heat engine A having twice the thermal
efficiency of engine B, determine (i) the heat
rejected by heat engine B, (b) the temperature at
which heat is rejected by heat engine A, and (C)
the work done during the process by heat engine
A and B respectively. If heat engines A having 431.5
 Heat Rejection on Engine A
1200 K (T1)(QLHEA= QHHEB) = Heat Absorbed
bykJ Engine B.
QHHEA = 1500
Case 1: Also ηA=2ηB
QLHEA (1) QLHEB - ? (2) T2-?, (3) WA &
WB - ?
QHHEB ηA=2ηB = 1-(T2/T1) = 2(1-(T3/T2))
= 1- (T2/1200) = 2{1- (300/T2)}
QLHEB T2 – 439 K
T2 – 439 K
300 K (T3)
ηA=1-(T2/T1) = 0.63
ηA = WA/QHHEA = WA/1500; WA=
951 kJ
44
QLHEA = 1500 – WA = 449 kJ
Case 2:
(1)WA = 1.5 WB; (i) QHHEB - ? (ii) ηA & ηB
WB = ηB x QHHEB (=QLHEA) = WA/1.5
Combine both Heat Engine – Rev HEC
Efficiency of Rev Heat Engine C = ηC = 1-
(300/1200) = 0.75.
ηC = WC/QHHEA = WC/1500; WC – 1125 kJ
Workdone by Rev. Heat Engine C = Workdone by
Rev Engine A + Workdone by Rev. Heat Engine
B
Wc = WA+ WB --(1). WA – 1.5 WB; WB =
1125/2.5 = 450 kJ; WA= 675 kJ.
QLHEA = 1500-675 = 825 kJ (QHHEB)
ηA = WA/1500 =675/1500 = 0.45 45
Summary
• Introduction to the second law
• Thermal energy reservoirs
• Heat engines
 Thermal efficiency
 The 2nd law: Kelvin-Planck statement
• Refrigerators and heat pumps
 Coefficient of performance (COP)
 The 2nd law: Clausius statement
• Perpetual motion machines
• Reversible and irreversible processes
 Irreversibilities, Internally and externally reversible processes
• The Carnot cycle
 The reversed Carnot cycle
• The Carnot principles
• The thermodynamic temperature scale
• The Carnot heat engine
 The quality of energy
• The Carnot refrigerator and heat pump 46
1. A heat pump receives heat from a lake that has an average winter
time temperature of 6°C and supplies heat into a house having an
average temperature of 27°C as shown in Fig.1. (a) If the house
loses heat to the atmosphere at the rate of 64,000 kJ/h, determine
the minimum power supplied to the heat pump, in kW. (b) A heat
exchanger is used to transfer the energy from the lake water to the
heat pump. If the lake water temperature decreases by 5°C as it
flows through the lake water-to-heat pump heat exchanger,
determine the minimum mass flow rate of lake water, in kg/s.
Neglect the effect of the lake water pump.

47
2. A heat pump supplies heat energy to a house at the rate of
1,40,000 kJ/h when the house is maintained at 25°C. Over a period
of one month, the heat pump operates for 100 hours to transfer
energy from a heat source outside the house to inside the house.
Consider a heat pump receiving heat from two different outside
energy sources. In one application the heat pump receives heat
from the outside air at 0°C. In a second application the heat pump
receives heat from a lake having a water temperature of 10°C. If
electricity costs $0.085/kWh, determine the maximum money
saved by using the lake water rather than the outside air as the
outside energy source.
3. A Carnot heat engine receives heat at 750 K and rejects the waste
heat to the environment at 300 K. The entire work output of the
heat engine is used to drive a Carnot refrigerator that removes heat
from the cooled space at -15°C at a rate of 400 kJ/min and rejects
it to the same environment at 300 K. Determine (a) the rate of heat
supplied to the heat engine and (b) the total rate of heat rejection to
the environment.

48
4. The cargo space of a refrigerated truck as shown in Fig.1 whose
inner dimensions are 12 m x 2.3 m x 3.5 m is to be precooled from
25°C to an average temperature of 5°C. The construction of the
truck is such that a transmission heat gain occurs at a rate of 80
W/°C. If the ambient temperature is 25°C, determine how long it will
take for a system with a refrigeration capacity of 8 kW to precool this
truck.

49
5. A Carnot heat pump is to be used to heat a house and maintain it at 22°C in winter.
On a day when the average outdoor temperature remains at about 0°C, the house is
estimated to lose heat at a rate of 90,000 kJ/h. If the heat pump consumes 7.5 kW
of power while operating, determine (a) how long the heat pump ran on that day; (b)
the total heating costs, assuming an average price of 0.85$/kWh for electricity; and
(c) the heating cost for the same day if resistance heating is used instead of a heat
pump.
6. Two Carnot heat engines A and B are connected in series between two thermal
reservoirs maintained at 1200 K and 300 K respectively. Heat Engine A receives
1500 kJ of heat from the high temperature reservoir and rejects heat to the Carnot
heat engine B. Heat engine B takes in heat rejects by heat engine A and rejects heat
to the low temperature reservoir. If heat engine A having twice the thermal efficiency
of engine B, determine (i) the heat rejected by heat engine B, (b) the temperature at
which heat is rejected by heat engine A, and (C) the work done during the process
by heat engine A and B respectively. If heat engines A having 1.5 times of work
done by heat engine B, determine (d) the amount of heat taken in by heat engine B,
and (e) the efficiency of heat engines A and B.

50
Entropy: A Measure of Disorder
System Considered in the Development
of Claussius inequity
The Entropy Change Between
Two Specific States
The entropy change between two specific states is the same
whether the process is reversible or irreversible
6-25

• The definition of entropy is based on the Clausius inequality, given by

where the equality holds for internally or totally reversible processes and the inequality for irreversible processes.
6-26

• Any quantity whose cyclic integral is zero is a

property, and entropy is defined as
The Entropy Change of an Isolated System
The entropy change of an isolated system is the sum of the entropy changes of
its components, and is never less than zero
The Entropy Change of a Pure Substance
The entropy of a pure substance is determined from the tables, just as for any
other property

(Fig. 6-10)
Schematic of the T-s Diagram for Water
System Entropy Constant During
Reversible, adiabatic (isentropic) Process
Level of Molecular Disorder (Entropy)
The level of molecular disorder (entropy) of a substance
increases as it melts and evaporates
Net Disorder (Entropy) Increases
During Heat Transfer
During a heat transfer process, the net disorder (entropy) increases (the increase
in the disorder of the cold body more than offsets the decrease in the disorder in
the hot body)
Heat Transfer for Internally Reversible
Processes
On a T-S diagram, the area under the process curve represents the heat
transfer for internally reversible processes

(Fig. 6-23)

d
h-s Diagram for Adiabatic Steady-Flow
Devices
For adiabatic steady-flow devices, the vertical distance ²h on an h-s
diagram is a measure of work, and the horizontal distance ²s is a
measure of irreversibilities
Schematic of an h-s Diagram for Water
Entropy of an Ideal Gas
The entropy of an ideal gas depends on both T and P. The function s°
represents only the temperature-dependent part of entropy
The Isentropic Relations of Ideal Gases
The isentropic relations of ideal gases
are valid for the isentropic processes of ideal gases only
Using Pr data to Calculate Final
Temperature During Isentropic Processes
The T-ebow of an ordinary shower serves as the mixing chamber
for hot- and cold-water streams.
Reversible Work Relations for Steady-Flow
and Closed Systems
P-v Diagrams of Isentropic, Polytropic,
and Isothermal Compression Processes
P-v Diagrams of isentropic, polytropic, and isothermal compression processes
between the same pressure limits
6-17
P-v andT-s Diagrams for a Two-
Stage Steady-Flow Compression
Process

• (Fig. 6-46)
6-18 The h-s Diagram for the Actual and
Isentropic Processes of an Adiabatic
Turbine

• (Fig. 6-59)

Isentropic Efficiency
of Turbine = Actual
work/Ideal work
= (h1-h2a)/(h1-h2s)
6-19 The h-s Diagram of the Actual and
Isentropic Processes of an Adiabatic
Compressor

• (Fig. 6-61)

Isentropic Efficiency
of Compressor =
Ideal work/Actual
work/
= (h1-h2s)/(h1-h2a)
6-20 The h-s Diagram of the Actual and
Isentropic Processes of an Adiabatic
Nozzle

• (Fig. 6-64)
6-21
Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer for a
General System
 6-22
A Control Volume’s Entropy Changes
with MassFlow as well as Heat Flow

• (Fig. 6-73)
6-23
Entropy Generation During Heat
Transfer
Graphical representation of entropy generation during a heat transfer
process through a finite temperature difference
6-24

Chapter Summary

• The second law of thermodynamics leads to the definition of a

new property called entropy, which is a quantitative measure of
microscopic disorder for a system.
6-25

Chapter Summary

• The definition of entropy is based on the Clausius inequality, given by

where the equality holds for internally or totally reversible processes and the inequality for irreversible processes.
6-26

Chapter Summary

• Any quantity whose cyclic integral is zero is a

property, and entropy is defined as
6-27

Chapter Summary

• For the special case of an internally reversible,

isothermal process, it gives
6-28

Chapter Summary

• The inequality part of the Clausius inequality combined with the definition of entropy yields an inequality known as the increase of entropy principle,
expressed as

where Sgen is the entropy generated during the process.

6-29

Chapter Summary

• Entropy change is caused by heat transfer, mass flow, and irreversibilities. Heat
transfer to a system increases the entropy, and heat transfer from a system
decreases it. The effect of irreversibilities is always to increase the entropy.
6-30

Chapter Summary

• Entropy is a property, and it can be expressed in terms of more familiar properties through the Tds relations, expressed as

and

Tds = du +Pdv

Tds = dh - vdP
6-31

Chapter Summary

• These two relations have many uses in thermodynamics and serve as the starting point in
developing entropy-change relations for processes. The successful use of Tds relations depends
on the availability of property relations. Such relations do not exist for a general pure substance
but are available for incompressible substances (solids, liquids) and ideal gases.
6-32

Chapter Summary
• The entropy-change and isentropic relations for a
process can be summarized as follows:

1.Pure substances:

Any process: s = s2 - s1 [kJ/(kg-K)]

Isentropic process: s2 = s1
6-33

Chapter Summary
• The entropy-change and isentropic relations for a
process can be summarized as follows:

2.Incompressible substances:

Any process: s2 - s1 = Cav 1nT2 [kJ/(kg-K)]

T1
Isentropic process: T2 = T1
6-34

Chapter Summary
• The entropy-change and isentropic relations for a
process can be summarized as follows:

3.Ideal gases:
a. Constant specific heats (approximate
treatment):
Any process:T v2
s2 - s1 = Cv,av 1n T + R1nv
2
[kJ/(kg-K)]
1 1

and
T2 P2
T1 P1
s2 - s1 = Cp,av 1n + R1n [kJ/(kg-K)]
6-35

Chapter Summary

• The entropy-change and isentropic relations

for a process can be summarized as follows:
3.Ideal gases:
a. Constant specific heats (approximate
treatment):
On a unit-mole basis,
T v
s2 - s1 = Cv,av 1n T + Ru1nv2
2 [kJ/(kmol-K)]
1 1
and
T2 P2
T1 P1
s2 - s1 = Cp,av 1n + Ru1n [kJ/(kmol-K)]
6-36

Chapter Summary
3. Ideal gases:
a. Constant specific heats (approximate
Isentropic process:
treatment):
6-37

Chapter Summary

• The entropy-change and isentropic relations

for a process can be summarized as follows:
3.Ideal gases:
b. Variable specific heats (exact
treatment):
Any process,
s2 - s1 = s2 - os1 -o R1n P
P
2 [kJ/(kg-K)]
1
or
o o P2
P1
s2 - s1 = s2 - s1 - Ru1n [kJ/(kmol-K)]
6-38

Chapter Summary
3.Ideal gases:
b. Variable specific heats (exact
Isentropic process,

treatment):
o o P
s2 = s1 - R1n P2 [kJ/(kg-K)]
1

where Pr is the relative pressure and

vr is the relative specific volume. The
function so depends on temperature
6-39

Chapter Summary

• The steady-flow work for a reversible process can be

expressed in terms of the fluid properties as
6-40

Chapter Summary

• For incompressible substances (v = constant) steady-

flow work for a reversible process simplifies to
6-41

Chapter Summary

• The work done during a steady-flow process is proportional to the specific volume.
Therefore,
v should be kept as small as possible during a compression process to minimize the work
input and as large as possible during an expansion process to maximize the work output.
6-42

Chapter Summary

• The reversible work inputs to a compressor compressing an ideal gas from T1, P1, to P2
in an isentropic (Pvk = constant), polytropic (Pvn = con-stant), or isothermal (Pv =
constant) manner, are determined by integration for each case with the following
results:
6-43

Chapter Summary

• Isentropic:

(kJ/kg)
6-44

Chapter Summary

• Polytropic:

(kJ/kg)
6-45

Chapter Summary

• Isothermal:

(kJ/kg)
6-46

Chapter Summary

• The work input to a compressor can be reduced by using multistage

compression with intercooling. For maximum savings from the work input,
the pressure ratio across each stage of the compressor must be the same.
6-47

Chapter Summary

• Most steady-flow devices operate under adiabatic

conditions, and the ideal process for these devices is the
isentropic process.
6-48

Chapter Summary
• The parameter that describes how efficiently a device approximates a corresponding isentropic device is called isentropic or adiabatic efficiency. It is expressed for turbines, compressors, and nozzles as follows:

In the relations above, h2a and h2s are the enthalpy values at the exit state for actual and isentropic processes, respectively.

Actual turbine work ~ wa

= = =
h1 - h2a
Isentropic
Isentropic compressor
turbine work ~
work w w
= =s s
= h12s--hh2s1
Actual KE at nozzlework
compressor exit 2 ~ V w2a
= = a
h - h V2
= h2a1 2a 1
2s

Isentropic KE at nozzle exit

h1 - h2s
6-49

Chapter Summary

• The entropy balance for any system undergoing any

process can be expressed in the general form as
6-50

Chapter Summary

• The entropy balance for any system undergoing any

process can be expressed in the general rate form, as
6-51

Chapter Summary

• For a general steady-flow process the entropy balance

simplifies to