Theory & Philosophy

Week 3 & 4

Dr John Ringson
(PhD-Wits, MA-AU, PGD-NUST)
jringson@gmail.com; 0693048042
Sol Plaatje University
 General Objectives of the Unit
(Week 3 & 4)
The general objectives of this unit are as follows:
• Understand the philosophical problems within the different scientific
context.
• Lay a foundation of philosophy and trace the philosophical roots of
science.
• Become familiar with the names and backgrounds of some key
philosophers of science.
• Identify some of the ideas and approaches that form the foundations
of modern science
 Outline of the lecture/presentation
• What is the philosophy of science?
• Philosophical Methods: Positivism & Interpretivism
• Philosophical Problems & Branches of Philosophy
Ontology
Epistemological issues in science
Metaphysical issues in science
Ethics & logic
• Critical thinking & logical Arguments
 General Philosophy of Science
What is the Philosophy of Science?

• It is the application of philosophical methods to philosophical

problems as they arise in the context of the sciences
• That's not a particularly helpful answer as it stands, but at least it
allows us to break our original question into parts:
What are the methods of philosophy?
What are philosophical problems?
How do these problems arise within different scientific fields?
 Philosophical Methods

• In the first half of the twentieth century, a prominent school of

thought (particularly associated with the Austrian philosopher
Ludwig Wittgenstein) held that the philosopher's task was to clarify
the meanings of words.
• The great problems of philosophy, it was thought, were mere
confusions resulting from a failure to understand the meanings of the
words used to frame those problems.
• Few philosophers today would subscribe to such an extreme view;
nonetheless, the clarification of meanings is still an important part of
the philosopher's repertoire.
 Philosophical Methods
 The philosophical methods include but not limited to the following:
• Positivism
• Interpretivism
• Pragmatism
• Objectivism
• Subjectivism
• Constructivism
• Phenomenological etc.
 Positivism & its role in knowledge
production
• It has to be acknowledged that it is difficult to explain
positivism research philosophy in a precise and succinct
manner.
• This is because there are vast differences between settings
in which positivism is used by researchers.
• The number variations in explaining positivism may be
equal to the number of authors who addressed the area of
research philosophy.
• Nevertheless, in its essence, positivism is based on the
idea that science is the only way to learn about the truth.
The text below explains positivism research philosophy
with the focus on business studies in particular.
 Positivism & its role in knowledge
production
• As a philosophy, positivism adheres to the view
that only “factual” knowledge gained through
observation (the senses), including measurement,
is trustworthy.
• In positivism studies the role of the researcher is
limited to data collection and interpretation in
an objective way.
• In other words, the researcher is an objective
analyst and she distances herself from personal
values in conducting the study. In these types of
studies research findings are usually observable
and quantifiable.
 Positivism & its role in knowledge
production
• Positivism depends on quantifiable observations
that lead to statistical analyses.
• It has been a dominant form of research in business
and management disciplines for decades.
• It has been noted that “as a philosophy, positivism
is in accordance with the empiricist view that
knowledge stems from human experience.
• It has an atomistic, ontological view of the world as
comprising discrete, observable elements and
events that interact in an observable, determined
and regular manner”
Positivism & its role in knowledge
production
• Moreover, in positivism studies, the researcher is
independent form the study and there are no provisions
for human interests within the study.
• Crowther and Lancaster (2008) argue that as a general
rule, positivist studies usually adopt deductive approach
, whereas inductive research approach is usually
associated with a phenomenology philosophy.
• Moreover, positivism relates to the viewpoint that
researcher needs to concentrate on facts, whereas
phenomenology concentrates on the meaning and has
provision for human interest.
Positivism & its role in knowledge
production
• Researchers warn that “if you assume a positivist
approach to your study, then it is your belief that
you are independent of your research and your
research can be purely objective.
• Independent means that you maintain minimal
interaction with your research participants when
carrying out your research.”
• In other words, studies with positivist paradigm are
based purely on facts and consider the world to be
external and objective.
• The five main principles of positivism research
philosophy can be summarized as the following:
Positivism & its role in knowledge
production
There are no differences in the logic of inquiry
across sciences.
The research should aim to explain and predict.
Research should be empirically observable via
human senses. Inductive reasoning should be used
to develop statements (hypotheses) to be tested
during the research process.
Science is not the same as the common sense. The
common sense should not be allowed to bias the
research findings.
Science must be value-free and it should be judged
Positivism & its role in knowledge
production
The following are a few examples for studies that
adhere to positivism research philosophy:
• A study into the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on
the equity of fashion brands in North America.
• An analysis of effects of foreign direct investment
in information technology industry on GDP growth
in
• A study of relationship between diffusion of
innovation of mobile applications and saturation of
applications in
Science as an Underlying Ground for Positivism

• Positivism often involves the use of existing theory

to develop hypotheses to be tested during the
research process.
• Positivist researchers tend to use highly structured
research methodology in order to allow the
replication of the same study in the future.
• Science can be specified as a cornerstone in
positivism research philosophy.
• Specifically, positivism relies on the following
aspects of science:
Science as an Underlying Ground for
Positivism
Science is deterministic. Scientific approach is based on the
assumption that X causes Y under certain circumstances. The role of
researcher when following the scientific approach is to discover
specific nature of cause-and-effect relationships.
2. Science is mechanistic. Mechanical nature of scientific approach
can be explained in a way that researchers develop hypotheses to be
proved or disproved via application of specific research methods. This
leads to the fact that
3. Science uses method. Chosen methods are applied mechanically in
order to operationalize theory or hypothesis. Application of
methodology involves selection of sample, measurements, analysis and
reaching conclusions about hypotheses.
4. Science deals with empiricism. In other words, science only deals
with what can be seen or measured. From this perspective, science
can be assessed as objective.
 Shortcomings of Positivism

• Positivism as an epistemology is associated with the following

set of disadvantages:
• Firstly, positivism relies on experience as a valid source of
knowledge. However, a wide range of basic and important
concepts such as cause, time and space are not based on
experience. There might be many additional factors that have
impacted research findings and positivism research philosophy
fails to acknowledge the effect of these factors.
• Secondly, positivism assumes that all types of processes can be
perceived as a certain variation of actions of individuals or
relationships between individuals.
• Thirdly, adoption of positivism in business studies and other
studies can be criticized for reliance on status quo. In other
words, research findings in positivism studies are only
descriptive, thus they lack insight into in-depth issues.
 References
• Collins, H. (2010) “Creative Research: The Theory and Practice
of Research for the Creative Industries” AVA Publications, p.38
• Crowther, D. & Lancaster, G. (2008) “Research Methods: A
Concise Introduction to Research in Management and Business
Consultancy” Butterworth-Heinemann
• Wilson, J. (2010) “Essentials of Business Research: A Guide to
Doing Your Research Project” SAGE Publications
• Ramanathan, R. (2008) “The Role of Organisational Change
Management in Offshore Outsourcing of Information
Technology Services” Universal Publishers
• Easterby-Smith, M, Thorpe, R. & Jackson, P. (2008)
“Management Research” 3rd ed,SAGE Publications Ltd., London
 Interpretivism & the role of knowledge
production
• Interpretivism, also known as interpretivist involves
researchers to interpret elements of the study, thus
interpretivism integrates human interest into a study.
• Accordingly, “interpretive researchers assume that
access to reality (given or socially constructed) is only
through social constructions such as language,
consciousness, shared meanings, and instruments”.
• Development of interpretivist philosophy is based on the
critique of positivism in social sciences.
• Accordingly, this philosophy emphasizes qualitative
analysis over quantitative analysis.
 Interpretivism & the role of knowledge
production
• Interpretivism is “associated with the philosophical
position of idealism, and is used to group together diverse
approaches, including social constructivism,
phenomenology and hermeneutics; approaches that
reject the objectivist view that meaning resides within
the world independently of consciousness”
• According to interpretivist approach, it is important for
the researcher as a social actor to appreciate differences
between people.
• Moreover, interpretivism studies usually focus on
meaning and may employ multiple methods in order to
reflect different aspects of the issue.
 Important Aspects of
Interpretivism
Interpretivist approach is based on naturalistic approach of data collection
such as interviews and observations.
Secondary data research is also popular with interpretivism philosophy.
In this type of studies, meanings emerge usually towards the end of the
research process.
The most noteworthy variations of interpretivism include the following:
• Hermeneutics refers to the philosophy of interpretation and understanding.
Hermeneutics mainly focuses on biblical texts and wisdom literature and
as such, has a little relevance to business studies.
• Phenomenology is “the philosophical tradition that seeks to understand
the world through directly experiencing the phenomena”.
• Symbolic interactionism accepts symbols as culturally derived social
objects having shared meanings. According to symbolic interactionism
symbols provide the means by which reality is constructed
 Important Aspects of
Interpretivism
In general interpretivist approach is based on the
following beliefs:
1. Relativist ontology: This approach perceives
reality as intersubjectively that is based on
meanings and understandings on social and
experiential levels.
2. Transactional or subjectivist epistemology:
According to this approach, people cannot be
separated from their knowledge; therefore, there is a
clear link between the researcher and research
subject.
 Differences between positivism and interpretivism
(Pizam and Mansfeld, 2009)
Assumptions Positivism
Nature of reality Objective, tangible, single
Goal of research Explanation, strong prediction
Focus of interest What is general, average and
representative
Knowledge generated Laws
Absolute (time, context, and
value free)
Interpretivism
Socially constructed, multiple
Understanding, weak
prediction
What is specific, unique, and
deviant
Knowledge generated
Relative (time, context, culture,
value bound)

Subject/Researcher relationship Rigid separation Interactive, cooperative,

Desired information
participative
How many people think and do What some people think and
a specific thing, or have a do, what kind of problems they
specific problem are confronted with, and how
they deal with them
 Advantages & Disadvantages of
Interpretivism
• Main disadvantages associated with interpretivism relate to
subjective nature of this approach and great room for bias on
behalf of researcher. Primary data generated in interpretivist
studies cannot be generalized since data is heavily impacted by
personal viewpoint and values. Therefore, reliability and
representativeness of data is undermined to a certain extent as
well.
• On the positive side, thanks to adoption of interpretivism,
qualitative research areas such as cross-cultural differences in
organizations, issues of ethics, leadership and analysis of
factors impacting leadership etc. can be studied in a great level
of depth. Primary data generated via Interpretivism studies
might be associated with a high level of validity because data in
such studies tends to be trustworthy and honest.
Advantages & Disadvantages of
Interpretivism
• Generally, if you are following interpretivism research philosophy
in your dissertation the depth of discussion of research philosophy
depends on the level of your studies. For a dissertation at
Bachelor’s level, it suffices to specify that you are following
Interpretivism approach and to describe the essence of this
approach in a short paragraph. For a dissertation at Master’s level
discussion needs to be expanded into 2-3 paragraphs to include
justification of your choice for interpretivist approach.
• At a PhD level, on the other hand, discussion of research
philosophy can cover several pages and you are expected to
discuss the essence of interpretivism by referring to several
relevant secondary data sources. Your justification for the
selection of interpretivism need to be offered in a succinct way in
about two paragraphs.
 References
• Myers, M.D. (2008) “Qualitative Research in
Business & Management” SAGE Publications
• Collins, H. (2010) “Creative Research: The Theory
and Practice of Research for the Creative
Industries” AVA Publications
• Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. (2012)
“Research Methods for Business Students”
6th edition, Pearson Education Limited
• Littlejohn, S.W. & Foss, K.A. (2009) “Encyclopedia of
Communication Theory” Vol.1, SAGE Publication
 Branches of Philosophy

The branches of philosophy are as follows:

• Ontology
• Metaphysics
• Epistemology
• Ethics & Logic
 Ontology
The first branch is ontology, or the ‘study of being’, which is concerned with what
actually exists in the world about which humans can acquire knowledge.
Ontology helps researchers recognize how certain they can be about the nature
and existence of objects they are researching.
For instance, what ‘truth claims’ can a researcher make about reality? Who
decides the legitimacy of what is ‘real’? How do researchers deal with different
and conflicting ideas of reality?
To illustrate, realist ontology relates to the existence of one single reality which
can be studied, understood and experienced as a ‘truth’; a real world exists
independent of human experience.
Meanwhile, relativist ontology is based on the philosophy that reality is
constructed within the human mind, such that no one ‘true’ reality exists.
Instead, reality is ‘relative’ according to how individuals experience it at any given
time and place.
 Epistemology

The second branch is epistemology, the ‘study of knowledge’. Epistemology is concerned

with all aspects of the validity, scope and methods of acquiring knowledge, such as a) what
constitutes a knowledge claim; b) how can knowledge be acquired or produced; and c) how
the extent of its transferability can be assessed. Epistemology is important because it
influences how researchers frame their research in their attempts to discover knowledge.
By looking at the relationship between a subject and an object we can explore the idea of
epistemology and how it influences research design. Objectivist epistemology assumes that
reality exists outside, or independently, of the individual mind.
Objectivist research is useful in providing reliability (consistency of results obtained) and
external validity (applicability of the results to other contexts).
Constructionist epistemology rejects the idea that objective ‘truth’ exists and is waiting to be
discovered. Instead, ‘truth’, or meaning, arises in and out of our engagement with the
realities in our world.
That is, a ‘real world’ does not preexist independently of human activity or symbolic
language. The value of constructionist research is in generating contextual understandings
of a defined topic or problem.
 Epistemology
Subjectivist epistemology relates to the idea that reality can
be expressed in a range of symbol and language systems
and is stretched and shaped to fit the purposes of
individuals such that people impose meaning on the world
and interpret it in a way that makes sense to them.
For example, a scuba diver might interpret a shadow in the
water according to whether they were alerted to a shark in
the area (the shark), waiting for a boat (the boat), or
expecting a change in the weather (clouds).
The value of subjectivist research is in revealing how an
individual’s experience shapes their perception of the world.
 Metaphysics

Derived from the Greek meta ta physika ("after the things of nature");
referring to an idea, doctrine, or posited reality outside of human sense
perception.
In modern philosophical terminology, metaphysics refers to the studies of
what cannot be reached through objective studies of material reality.
Areas of metaphysical studies include ontology, cosmology, and often,
epistemology.
Metaphysical - Longer definition: Metaphysics is a type of philosophy or
study that uses broad concepts to help define reality and our understanding of
it. Metaphysical studies generally seek to explain inherent or universal
elements of reality which are not easily discovered or experienced in our
everyday life. As such, it is concerned with explaining the features of reality
that exist beyond the physical world and our immediate senses.
 Metaphysics

Metaphysics, therefore, uses logic based on the meaning of human terms, rather
than on a logic tied to human sense perception of the objective world.
Metaphysics might include the study of the nature of the human mind, the
definition and meaning of existence, or the nature of space, time, and/or causality.
The origin of philosophy, beginning with the Pre-Socratics, was metaphysical in nature.
For example, the philosopher Plotinus held that the reason in the world and in the rational
human mind is only a reflection of a more universal and perfect reality beyond our limited
human reason.
He termed this ordering power in the universe "God.“
 Metaphysics

Metaphysical ideas, because they are not based on direct experience

with material reality, are often in conflict with the modern sciences.
Beginning with the Enlightenment and the Scientific Revolution,
experiments with, and observations of, the world became the
yardsticks for measuring truth and reality.
Therefore, our contemporary valuation of scientific knowledge over
other forms of knowledge helps explain the controversy and
skepticism concerning metaphysical claims, which are considered
unverifiable by modern science.
 Metaphysics

In matters of religion, the problem of validating metaphysical claims is most

readily seen in all of the "proofs" for the existence of God.
Like trying to prove the existence of a "soul" or "spirit" in the human, attempts
to scientifically prove the existence of God and other nonobjective, nonhuman
realities is seemingly impossible.
The difficulty arises out of the attempt to scientifically study and objectify
something which, by its very nature, cannot become an object of our scientific
studies.
This reigning belief that everything can be explained scientifically in terms of
natural causes - referred to as naturalism - compels many to think that only
what is seen or sensed, only what can be hypothesized and tested can be true,
and therefore, meaningful to us as humans.
 Metaphysics

Recently, however, even as metaphysics has come under attack for its apparent lack of
access to real knowledge, so has science begun to have its own difficulties in claiming
absolute knowledge.
Continual developments in our understanding of the human thought process reveals
that science cannot solely be relied upon to explain reality, for the human mind cannot
be seen as simply a mirror of the natural world.
For example, since the act of scientific observation itself tends to produce the reality, it
hopes to explain, the so-called "truths" of science cannot be considered as final or
objective.
This fact manifests itself over and over again, as scientific truths and laws continue to
break down or yield to new and better explanations of reality. What becomes apparent,
therefore, is that the process of human interpretation in the sciences, as elsewhere, is
both variable and relative to the observer's viewpoint.
 Metaphysics
Under the skeptical analyses of the philosophical movements known as postmodernism
and deconstructionism, all of these facts have resulted in a modern repudiation of both
metaphysics and science.

Their criticisms are based on the cultural and historical relativity of all knowledge.

These two philosophical "schools" deny any existence at all of an objective or universal
knowledge.

Thus, metaphysical claims stand today between the absolutist claims of science (
scientism) and the complete relativism of postmodernism and deconstructionism.
 Philosophy & Ethics

• Ethics is the philosophical study of morality. It is one of the main

branch of philosophy which corresponds to the traditional division of
philosophy into formal, natural and moral philosophy.
• It can be turned into a general study of goodness, right action,
applied ethics, meta-ethics, moral psychology and metaphysics of
moral responsibility.
• The general study of goodness and right action is the main task of
ethics. It has correlatively its substantive question as: how are we
rational beings and what moral principles should govern our choice
and pursuit?
 Definition of Ethics
• The word Ethics is derived from the Greek word ‘ethos’ which means
character or conduct.
• Ethics is also called as moral philosophy or philosophical thinking
about morality.
• This morality has been further elaborated as action and behaviour
which is concerned with ‘good’ or ‘evil’, of particular traditions, groups
or individual.
• The term ‘moral’ and ‘ethical’ is often used as equivalent to right or
good as opposed to ‘immoral’ and ‘unethical’. It doesn’t mean morally
right or morally good, but it definitely pertains to morality
 Definition of Ethics
• Ethics is that science which is concerned with moral behaviour or with right
or wrong and good or evil of human behaviour.
• It propounds those principles which make our conduct moral. It becomes
clear when we explain the derivation of the words right and good.
• The word right is derived from Latin word ‘rectus’, which literally means
‘straight’ or ‘according to rule’. It means that we are concerned with those
principles which make our conduct right or straight.
• The analysis of the word ‘right’ explains one aspect of ethics. Rules are the
means and whenever there are means, there must be an end or goal as
well. If Right is the mean of conduct, then the question arises that what
should be its end.
 Definition of Ethics
• We get the answer to this only when we analyze the word good which is derived from
the German word ‘gut’.
• Gut means everything useful or serviceable for some end or purpose. When we say that
such and such school is good, what we actually mean is that it is useful for education of
the children.
• Thus, in our daily life we do not interpret good as something which is useful for some
end rather, we mean by it, the end or good itself.
• So, we arrive at the conclusion that ethics is concerned with end or goal of life. As we
know in our life and in the lives of others there are innumerable things that can be
regarded as good.
• Ethics as a science is not concerned with particular good of the individuals; on the
contrary it is concerned with the supreme goal or the ultimate end with reference to
which the entire life of individual is directed - the ‘Summum Bonum’.
 Definition of Ethics
• Ethics refer to guide what human ought to do, usually in terms of
right, obligations, fairness and specific virtue.
• It is related to issues of propriety –rightness and wrongness, what is
right is ethical, what is wrong in unethical. Sometimes the word
‘proper’ , ‘fair’ and ‘just’ are also used in the place of right and
ethical.
 History of Ethics
The history of ethics is concerned with various philosophical views in the
course of time. It has been elaborated by thinkers like Pythagoras (582-
500 B.C) Heraclitus (535-475 B.c) Confucious (558-479 B.C). With
reference to the moral order, they proposed various moral truths and
principles.
The well-developed system of ethics was in the teaching of Socrates
(470- 399 B.C).
• According to him, the ultimate aim of human activity is happiness, and it
is necessary to acquire the virtue. No man is deliberately corrupt.
• All evil activities come from ignorance and the virtue is the kind of
prudence.
 History of Ethics
After Socrates, Plato (427-347 B.C) declared that the highest
value/good consists in the perfect imitation of God. But it cannot be
fully realised in this life. He added that justice, temperance and
fortitude very well constitute the harmony of human activities.
• Plato’s disciple Aristotle may be considered as the founder of
systematic ethics.
• He holds that true happiness prepared for him by the god is the
object and reward of virtue.
• It can be attained only through a man’s own individual’s exertion.
 History of Ethics
The Hedonistic ethics begin with Democritus (460-370 B.C) who
considers joyous and cheerful as the highest good.
Hedonism was first taught by Aristippus of cyrene (435-354 B.C)
The greatest pleasure is the Supreme good of human endeavour.
Epicurus (341-270 B.C) differs from Aristippus in the same that
spiritual and sensual enjoyment are associated with greatest freedom
from displeasure and pain.
The cynic, Anitisthenes (444-369 B.C) is contrary of hedonism, viz.
virtue alone suffice for happiness.
 History of Ethics
The stoics, Zeno (236-264 B.C) and his disciples Cleathes, Chrysippus and other
refined the views of Anthisthenes, that virtue is the harmonious agreement with
the divine Reason which is the whole cause of human nature.
Epictetus (A.D. 50), Marens Aurelius (A.D121- 180), Cicero (106-43 B.C) have not
given some new idea but choose particular views from various systems of Grecian
philosophy
• Moral goodness is the general object of all virtue that what is becoming to man as
a rational being as distinct from brute.
• Actions are often good or bad not because of human institutions/customs but of
their intrinsic nature.
• Cicero has given an exhaustive exposition of the cardinal virtue and obligations
connected with them.
 Branches of Ethics
There are four main branches of ethics as Descriptive Ethics, Normative ethics,
Meta-ethics and Applied ethics.
1. Descriptive Ethics
 It deals with what people actually believes to be right or wrong. It evaluates
human actions on the basis of law and customs.
 The societies have structured their moral principles which are not forever. They
change from time to time and expect people to behave accordingly.
 Descriptive Ethics may also be called as comparative ethics, because it
compares the ethics of past and present.
 It also has some inputs from other disciplines such as Anthropology, Psychology,
Sociology and History to explain the moral rightness and wrongness.
 Branches of Ethics
2. Normative Ethics
 It deals with norms that how one should act and behave in society. It
also called as prescriptive Ethics.
 The ultimate principles of ‘Normative Ethics’ s doing to other as we
want them to do to us.
 Normative Ethics also anticipates rational justification and teaches a
lesson to a person who really disturbs the social and moral order.
 As like Aristotle ‘Virtue ethics’, Kant’s ‘Deontological ethics’, Mill’s
‘Consequenlialism’ and Bhagwadgita’s ‘Nishkam’s Karmayoga’ are all
the typical examples of Normative ethics.
 Branches of Ethics
3. Virtue Ethics
 The foundation of virtue ethics was laid by Plato, whose argument attempts to
define justice as one interlocutor proposes.
 He said that justice and other virtue as harmony of the soul i.e. interior quality is
independent of any action.
 Aristotle presents virtue as a mean between two vices i.e bravery and generosity
between miserliness.
 Generosity between miserliness and prodigality . According to Plato internal
qualities and brave man can be brave even if he never has opportunity to show it.
 Aristotle does what he call habbit of virtue. The idea is that someone who doesn’t
have correct virtue, internal disposition might attain it gradually through practice.
 Branches of Ethics
 He who is not naturally generous can nonetheless practice and giving to the poor and eventually,
through practice acquire a hobbit or instinct to give and thus become generous.
 Thus, Aristotle identified some of the moral virtues including wisdom. Plato, Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas
were the major advocates of virtue ethics.
4. Deontology Ethics/ Duty Ethics
 It focuses on rightness and wrongness of the action rather than consequences of those
actions.
 Different deontological theories are categorical imperative, moral absolutism, divine
command theory etc.
 The most famous deontology theory is Immanuel Kant’s Categorical Imperative. The
moral rules as per Kant follow from two principles viz.
 Universality and Principle of reciprocity. By Universality he meant that a moral law must
be possible to apply it to all people.
 Branches of Ethics
5. Consequential and Teleological Ethics
 It says that morality of an action is contingent with the outcome of that action. So morally
right action would produce good outcome while, morally wrong action would produce bad
outcome.
 Based on outcome, there are several theories such as utilitarianism (Right action leads to
maximum happiness of greatest number of people).
 Hedonism (anything that maximizes pleasure is right), Egoism (anything that maximizes the
good for self is right).
 Asceticism (abstinence from egoistic pleasures to achieve spiritual goal is right action).
 Altruism (to live for others not caring for self is right action). The core idea of
consequentialism is that “ends justify the means”.
 An action that might not be right in the light of moral absolutism may be right action under
teleology.
 Branches of Ethics
6. Meta-Ethics
 It doesn’t propound any moral principles or goal for action. It has been primarily
interested in classification and philosophical understanding rather than in normative
ethics.
 Meta-ethics asks the following questions? What is meaning, nature, function of
ethical terms like right, wrong, good and bad? Secondly, how moral usage of terms is
to be distinguished from non-moral one ? What is the analysis of terms like action,
conscience, free will, intention, promise excuse, motive, reason, responsibility etc ?
 Thus, in above questions, meta-ethics doesn’t consider, whether an action is good or
bad, rather it questions what good and badness of morality itself is? It is an abstract
way of thinking about ethics.
 The key theory in meta- ethics is naturalism, non-naturalism and prescriptivism.
 Branches of Ethics
7. Applied Ethics
 It is concerned with the analysis of particular moral issues in private and
public life.
 It deals with the more concrete subjects like, the family, profession, state
and politics etc. in real life situations and ethical principles which be
applied in it for securing a good life.
 There are six domains of applied ethics viz- Decision ethics, Professional
Ethics, Clinical Ethics, Business Ethics, Organizational Ethics and
SocialEthics which primarily deal with rightness of social, economical,
cultural, religious aspects like child labour, abortion euthanasia, cloning,
surrogacy etc.
 Benefits of Studying Ethics
Development of character: Ethics is greatly helpful to us in the
development of character and personality. It is through this subject
that we learn various values and virtues of life. It is the basis of all
good conduct. Character also depends upon our desire, wish and will.
Knowledge of ideals, values and virtues: In every society certain
ideals and virtues are laid down for the individuals. A comprehensive
knowledge about these ideals and virtues is given to us by ethics.
Ethics deals directly with these ideals and virtues. In their absence,
morality will come to an end. Ethics helps us to lead a virtuous life.
The prime value of life as per ethics is self realization. The character of
individual depends upon values of life
 Benefits of Studying Ethics
Responsibility and Duty: Ethics is helpful to us in another way. It is
with the help of moral rules that we come to know about our duties
and responsibilities. We have duties towards ourselves as well as
towards society. Every individual must have a code of personality. This
is what we call the principles of life. Such a code should be self-
imposed. Ethics can help us in framing this code. Secondly there are
certain duties and responsibilities towards society also. Ethics can
make us conscious of them
 Benefits of Studying Ethics
Social problems: There is no society in the world where social
problems are not found. Every society faces social problems. The evils
and problems such as crime, unemployment, drug addiction, over-
population, child marriage, dowry system and women's oppression
are found everywhere, more so in backward countries. In such
circumstances, ethics as a subject can help us a lot in solving these
problems. According to Prof. Dewey, "Ethics can go a long way in
removing evils of humanity."
 Benefits of Studying Ethics
Law, Justice and Order: In modern times, justice has acquired social
and economic dimensions. Ethics is quite helpful in understanding the
real meaning of the concept of justice as well as the maintenance of
law and order.
Utility in Religious, Political and Economic fields: Ethics teaches an
individual to adopt the just means of earning. It discourages
corruption. Ethics and religion are closely connected. Ethics checks
religious dogmatism and purges it of impurities. It preaches morality
and aims at bringing fine virtues in the political, economic and
religious field.
 Benefits of Studying Ethics
Ultimate end: The most important aim of ethics is that it makes one
aware of the ultimate end or the summum bonum of life. It is the end
which ultimately gives direction to all the activities of man.
Utility in the psychological field: Ethics analysis mental phenomena
like desire, wish and will etc. Evaluation of the modes of the mind
helps in the assessment of personality.
 ASSIGNMENTS QUESTIONS

 Choose any one between the following questions

 General Philosophy

 Compare and contrast positivism and interpretivism's roles in knowledge production.

 Ubuntu & African Philosophy

 With reference to Ubuntu Philosophy, critically review Bewaji (2005)’s statement that 'the wellspring of morality and ethics in
African societies is the pursuit of a balance of individual, with communal wellbeing'.
 Bewaji, J. A. I. (2005). Ethics and morality in Yoruba culture. A companion to African philosophy, 396-403.

 Length: 1500-2000 Words

 Due Date: 21 April 2023

 Logic as a Branch of Philosophy
• Logic is often seen as the study of the laws of thought, correct reasoning, valid
inference, or logical truth.
• It is a formal science that investigates how conclusions follow from premises in a
topic-neutral manner, i.e., independent of the specific subject matter discussed.
• Logic is the examination of the principles and methods used to separate correct
reasoning from incorrect reasoning.
• Logic is also a branch of philosophy that studies rules and formulae that help us
to distinguish between bad and good argument.
• Logic helps to answer such questions as: what is correct reasoning? What
distinguish a good argument from a bad one? Are there methods to detect
fallacies in reasoning, and if so, what are they?
Logic as a Branch of Philosophy
• Logic is both an art and science, and it is on the one hand, a rigorous academic or
theoretical discipline and on the other hand it is practically applicable field that can be
used in day-to-day activities.
• Therefore, logic brings about correct and sound reasoning. The application of the
systems and techniques of logic to real life situation directs us into the area of applied
logic.
• Logic deals with reasoning as features of thinking. Logic differs from psychology in
that it does not deal with all types of thinking, such as learning, remembering, day –
dreaming, supposing and so forth, but only with that type of thinking called reasoning.
• We must note that all reasoning is thinking but not all thinking is reasoning.
• Because one can imagine himself to be a pilot; you may remember something you
should have done two days ago, or I may regret an action I performed, or I may be even
be daydreaming. All these are not reasoning but they are definitely thinking.
Branches of Logic
 Inductive Reasoning
• Inductive reasoning is a logical process that involves using
specific experiences, observations or facts to evaluate a
situation.
• This is an essential tool in statistics, research, probability
and day-to-day decision-making.
• This means that, regardless of your profession, learning
about inductive reasoning and how to use it can help you
identify patterns and make better decisions in the workplace
and in the community.
 Inductive Reasoning
• Inductive reasoning is a method of logical thinking that combines
observations with experiential information to reach a conclusion.
• When you use a specific set of data or existing knowledge from
past experiences to make decisions, you're using inductive
reasoning.
• For example, if you review the population information of a city for
the past 15 years, you may observe a consistent rate of
population increase.
• If you want to predict what the population might be in five years,
you can use the evidence or information you have to make an
estimate. This is inductive reasoning.
 Inductive Reasoning
• There are various ways to use inductive reasoning depending on the situation. Here are
the three most commonly used types of inductive reasoning:
Inductive generalization
• This type of inductive reasoning involves considering evidence from past similar
situations to create a conclusion. You could use evidence like the following to support
an inductive generalization:
Large samples
Random sampling
Counterexamples
• Example: For the past three years, the company has exceeded its revenue goal in Q3.
Based on this information, the company is likely to exceed its revenue goal in Q3 this
year.
 Inductive Reasoning
Statistical induction
• This type of inductive reasoning utilizes statistical data to draw
conclusions. Statistical induction, or statistical generalization, is a type
of inductive generalization. While this type of reasoning provides
context an assumption, it's important to remain open to new evidence
that might alter your theory.
• Example: 90% of the sales team met their quota last month. Pat is on
the sales team. Pat likely met his sales quota last month.
 Inductive Reasoning
Casual reasoning
• This type of thinking involves making a logical connection between a
cause and a likely effect. For the casual reasoning to be effective, it's
helpful for it to involve a strong relationship between the starting
situation and the resulting inference. Observable evidence is also
crucial for this type of reasoning.
• Example: Joe consistently gets a stomachache after eating pears. He
doesn't get a stomachache consistently after eating any other type of
fruit. Eating the pears might cause Joe's stomachache.
 Inductive Reasoning
Induction by confirmation
• Induction by confirmation allows you to reach a conclusion by
accepting specific assumptions. Police officers and detectives might
use this type of reasoning to develop a theory for investigations. They
may then work to collect evidence to support their theory.
• Example: Anybody who breaks into a building may have opportunity,
motive and means. Renee was in the area, dislikes the homeowner and
has lock picks in his bag. Renee likely broke into the building.
 Deductive Reasoning
• Deductive reasoning starts with a general assumption, it applies logic, then
it tests that logic to reach a conclusion.
• With this type of reasoning, if the premises are true, then the conclusion
must be true.
• Logically Sound Deductive Reasoning Examples:
All dogs have ears; golden retrievers are dogs; therefore, they have ears.
All racing cars must go over 80MPH; the Dodge Charger is a racing car;
therefore, it can go over 80MPH.
Christmas is always Dec. 25th; today is Dec. 25th, therefore it’s Christmas.
 Deductive Reasoning
• There are three major types of deductive reasoning we can use to test
deductions: syllogism, modus ponens, and modus tollens. Let's break
these down one at a time.
Syllogism
• Syllogism is probably the simplest of the 3 types of deductive
reasoning. In simplest terms syllogism states that if A=B and B=C,
then A=C. It takes two separate clauses and connects them together. A
more creative example would be a puma is a cat, cats are mammals,
therefore pumas are mammals.
 Deductive Reasoning
Modus Ponens
• A modus ponens is when a deduction is presented as a conditional statement,
proven by subsequent clauses: the antecedent and consequent. For example: Every
player on the Boston Celtics is between the ages of 21 and 31. Jayson Tatum is on
the Boston Celtics, therefore he must be between 21 and 31.
Modus Tollens
• A modus tollens is the opposite of a modus ponens. Whereas the latter affirms a
conditional statement, the former refutes it. For example: The freezing point of
water is 32 degrees Fahrenheit. It’s hotter than 32 degrees Fahrenheit, so water
will not freeze.
 Empiricism
• In philosophy, empiricism is an epistemological theory that holds that
knowledge or justification comes only or primarily from sensory
experience.
• It is one of several views within epistemology, along with rationalism
and skepticism. Empiricism emphasizes the central role of empirical
evidence in the formation of ideas, rather than innate ideas or traditions.
• However, empiricists may argue that traditions (or customs) arise due to
relations of previous sensory experiences.
• Historically, empiricism was associated with the "blank slate" concept
(tabula rasa), according to which the human mind is "blank" at birth and
develops its thoughts only through experience.
 Empiricism
• Empiricism in the philosophy of science emphasizes evidence,
especially as discovered in experiments. It is a fundamental part of
the scientific method that all hypotheses and theories must be tested
against observations of the natural world rather than resting solely on
a priori reasoning, intuition, or revelation.
• Empiricism, often used by natural scientists, says that "knowledge is
based on experience" and that "knowledge is tentative and
probabilistic, subject to continued revision and falsification". Empirical
research, including experiments and validated measurement tools,
guides the scientific method.
 Rationality
• In philosophy, rationalism is the epistemological view that "regards
reason as the chief source and test of knowledge" or "any view
appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification".
• More formally, rationalism is defined as a methodology or a theory "in
which the criterion of truth is not sensory but intellectual and
deductive".
• In an old controversy, rationalism was opposed to empiricism, where the
rationalists believed that reality has an intrinsically logical structure.
• Because of this, the rationalists argued that certain truths exist, and that
the intellect can directly grasp these truths.
 Rationality
• That is to say, rationalists asserted that certain rational principles exist
in logic, mathematics, ethics, and metaphysics that are so
fundamentally true that denying them causes one to fall into
contradiction.
• The rationalists had such a high confidence in reason that empirical
proof and physical evidence were regarded as unnecessary to
ascertain certain truths – in other words, "there are significant ways in
which our concepts and knowledge are gained independently of
sense experience"
 Rationality
• Different degrees of emphasis on this method or theory led to a range
of rationalist standpoints, from the moderate position "that reason has
precedence over other ways of acquiring knowledge" to the more
extreme position that reason is "the unique path to knowledge".
• Given a pre-modern understanding of reason, rationalism is identical to
philosophy, the Socratic life of inquiry, or the zetetic (skeptical) clear
interpretation of authority (open to the underlying or essential cause of
things as they appear to our sense of certainty).
• In recent decades, Leo Strauss sought to revive "Classical Political
Rationalism" as a discipline that understands the task of reasoning, not
as foundational, but as maieutic.
 African Philosophy
• A Kenyan philosopher, Henry Odera Oruka (1944–1995), conceptualised and
articulated the six trends in African philosophy.
• These are ethno-philosophy, nationalistic-ideological philosophy, artistic (or
literary philosophy), professional philosophy, philosophic sagacity and
hermeneutic philosophy.
• Oruka’s six trends were a direct response to a Euro-western discourse that, for
many years, had many believe that African philosophy did not exist.
• He responded to this discourse precisely because he saw the urgent need to
contribute to the Africanisation of the study of philosophy and somewhat elevate
the status of African philosophy, because for him “…philosophy is not a science in
the ivory tower but has to contribute to the beerment of the life of the people - it
has to be practical.
 African Philosophy
• Philosophers have to deploy the results of their thinking to the well-
being of their communities” (Graness, 2012:2).
• With that said, philosophers are yet to reach a common consensus on
the definition of philosophy (Mathebula, 2019). This is because of the
nature, the character and the complexity of the discipline itself.
• For this module, philosophy is a body of knowledge that encourages
divergent views on what we claim to know, and how we claim to
know what we claim to know
 Ubuntu & African Philosophy
• I Am Because We Are': The African Philosophy of Ubuntu
• Rene Descartes is often called the first modern philosopher, and his famous
saying, “I think, therefore I am,” laid the groundwork for how we
conceptualize our sense of self. But what if there’s an entirely different way
to think about personal identity — a non-Western philosophy that rejects
this emphasis on individuality?
• Consider the African philosophy of “ubuntu” — a concept in which your
sense of self is shaped by your relationships with other people. It’s a way of
living that begins with the premise that “I am” only because “we are.” The
Kenyan literary scholar James Ogude believes ubuntu might serve as a
counterweight to the rampant individualism that’s so pervasive in the
contemporary world.
 Ubuntu & African Philosophy
• "Ubuntu is rooted in what I call a relational form of personhood, basically
meaning that you are because of the others," said Ogude, speaking to Steve
Paulson and Anne Strainchamps in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. "In other words,
as a human being, you—your humanity, your personhood—you are
fostered in relation to other people."
• In practice, ubuntu means believing the common bonds within a group are
more important than any individual arguments and divisions within it.
"People will debate, people will disagree; it's not like there are no
tensions," said Ogude. "It is about coming together and building a
consensus around what affects the community. And once you have
debated, then it is understood what is best for the community, and then
you have to buy into that."
 Ubuntu & African Philosophy
• Archbishop Desmond Tutu drew on the concept of ubuntu when he
led South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission, which helped
South Africa reckon with its history of apartheid.
• Ubuntu promotes restorative justice and a community-centric ethos.
"We have the ability, as people, to dig into our human values, to go
for the best of them, in order to bring about healing and to bridge the
gap," Ogude said. This idea also extends to our relationships with the
non-human world of rivers, plants and animals.
 Ubuntu & African Philosophy
• There are various definitions of the word "Ubuntu". The most recent
definition was provided by Mugumbate & Chereni (2019).
• These proponents defined ubuntu as:
“A collection of values and practices that people of Africa or of African origin view as
making people authentic human beings. While the nuances of these values and practices
vary across different ethnic groups, they all point to one thing – an authentic individual
human being is part of a larger and more significant relational, communal, societal,
environmental and spiritual world”
• There are many different (and not always compatible) definitions of
what ubuntu is.
• Even with the various definitions, Ubuntu encompasses the
interdependence of humans on another and the acknowledgment of
one's responsibility to their fellow humans and the world around them.
It is a philosophy that supports collectivism over individualism.
 Ubuntu & African Philosophy
• Ubuntu asserts that society gives human beings their humanity. An
example is a Zulu-speaking person who when commanding to
speak in Zulu would say "khuluma isintu", which means "speak the
language of people".
• When someone behaves according to custom, a Sotho-speaking
person would say "ke motho", which means "he/she is a human".
• The aspect of this that would be exemplified by a tale told (often, in
private quarters) in Nguni "kushone abantu ababili ne Shangaan",
in Sepedi "go tlhokofetje batho ba babedi le leShangane", in English
(two people died and one Shangaan). In each of these examples,
humanity comes from conforming to or being part of the tribe.
 Ubuntu & African Philosophy
• According to Michael Onyebuchi Eze, the core of ubuntu can
best be summarised as follows:
A person is a person through other people strikes an affirmation of one’s humanity
through recognition of another in his or her uniqueness and difference. It is a
demand for a creative intersubjective formation in which the "other" becomes a
mirror (but only a mirror) for my subjectivity. This idealism suggests to us that
humanity is not embedded in my person solely as an individual; my humanity is co-
substantively bestowed upon the other and me. Humanity is a quality we owe to
each other. We create each other and need to sustain this otherness creation. And
if we belong to each other, we participate in our creations: we are because you are,
and since you are, definitely I am. The "I am" is not a rigid subject, but a dynamic
self-constitution dependent on this otherness creation of relation and distance
 Ubuntu & African Philosophy
• Ubuntu" as political philosophy encourages community equality,
propagating the distribution of wealth.
• This socialisation is a vestige of agrarian peoples as a hedge against the
crop failures of individuals.
• Socialisation presupposes a community population with which individuals
empathise and concomitantly, have a vested interest in its collective
prosperity.
• Urbanisation and the aggregation of people into an abstract and
bureaucratic state undermines this empathy. African intellectual historians
like Michael Onyebuchi Eze have argued, however, that this idea of
"collective responsibility" must not be understood as absolute in which the
community's good is prior to the individual's good.
 Ubuntu & African Philosophy
• On this view, ubuntu it is argued, is a communitarian philosophy that is widely
differentiated from the Western notion of communitarian socialism.
• n fact, ubuntu induces an ideal of shared human subjectivity that promotes a community's
good through an unconditional recognition and appreciation of individual uniqueness and
difference.
• Audrey Tang has suggested that Ubuntu "implies that everyone has different skills and
strengths; people are not isolated, and through mutual support they can help each other
to complete themselves.
 Ubuntu maxims or short statements
• Motho ke motho ka batho (Sotho/Tswana). A person is a person
through other people.
• Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu (Zulu). A person is a person through other
people.
• Umntu ngumntu ngabantu (Xhosa). A person is a person through other
people.
• Munhu munhu nevanhu (Shona). A person through other people.
• Ndiri nekuti tiri (Shona). I am because we are.
• Munhu i munhu hivanwani vanhu (Xitsonga). A person is a person
through other people.
• Muthu ndi muthu nga vhathu (Venda). A person is a person through
other people