JARIM. E. O.

OMOGI
BSc Biochemistry (KU), Cert M&E
(Amref), Mph (MOI).
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 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lesson the learner should be
able to:
• Define the concepts in Sampling
• Learn the reasons for sampling
• Develop an understanding about different
sampling methods
• Distinguish between probability & non
probability sampling

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 What is Sampling?

What you What you

want to talk Population actually
about observe in
the data

Sampling Process
Sampling Sample
Frame

Inference

Using data to say something (make an inference) with confidence, about

a whole (population) based on the study of only a few (sample).

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• For example, you want to do a study: the
average height of all men between age 20
to 30 in Canada, then the target and
theoretical population is all men between
age 20 to 30; and your study population
would be say all men between age 20 to 30
in Ontario.

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 Sampling
The process of selecting a number of
individuals for a study in such a way that the
individuals selected are a representative of the
large group.

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 Important considerations

 What is the group of people (POPULATION with

intervention) we are interested in from which we
want to draw a sample?
 How many people do we need in our sample?
 How will these people be selected?

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 Important considerations Cont……..

The study population must be clearly defined

(according to age, sex, and residence) otherwise we
cannot do the sampling. Apart from persons, a study
population may consist of villages, institutions,
records, etc.
Each study population consists of STUDY UNITS.
The way we define our study population and our
study unit depends on the problem we want to
investigate and on the objectives of the study.

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 Example

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 Representativeness
• In order to draw valid conclusions on the whole
study population from a quantitative approach,
care should be taken to ensure the sample is
representative

A REPRESENTATIVE sample must be as much

like the population in as many ways as possible

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 Example…….
If you intend to interview 100 mothers in order to
obtain a complete picture of the weaning practices
in District X you would have to select these
mothers from a representative sample of villages.

Selecting them from only one or two villages might

give you a distorted (biased) picture. It would also
be unwise to only interview mothers who attend
the under-fives clinic, as those who do not attend
this clinic may wean their children differently.

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 Bias in Sampling
BIAS in sampling is a systematic error in
sampling procedures, which leads to a distortion
in the results of the study.
Common sources of bias in experimental research
• Sampling bias
• Selection bias
• Response bias
• Performance bias
• Measurement bias

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 For example
A baseline survey was conducted to determine the
health needs of a rural population in order to plan
primary health care activities.
However, a nomadic tribe, which represented one
third of the total population, was left out of the
study. As a result the study did not give an
accurate picture of the health needs of the total
population.

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 BIAS….

• How do we deal with BIAS?

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 How do we deal with Bias?
There are several ways to deal with this problem and reduce the
possibility of bias:
Data collection tools (including written introductions for the
interviewers to use with potential respondents) should be
pre-tested. If necessary, adjustments should be made to
ensure better co-operation.
If non-response is due to absence of the subjects, follow-up
of non-respondents may be considered.
If non-response is due to refusal to co-operate, an extra,
separate study of non-respondents may be considered in
order to identify to what extent they differ from
respondents.
Another strategy is to include additional people in the
sample, so that non-respondents who were absent during
data collection can be replaced. However, this can only be
justified if their absence was very unlikely to be related to
the topic being studied.
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 The Language of Sampling
• Sample element: a case or a single unit that is
selected from a population and measured in
some way—the basis of analysis (e.g., a
person, thing, specific time, etc.).
• Universe: the theoretical aggregation of all
possible elements—unspecified to time and
space (e.g., University of Idaho).
• Population: the theoretical aggregation of
specified elements as defined for a given
survey defined by time and space (e.g., UI
students and staff in 2008).
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 The Language of Sampling
• Target population: the aggregation of the
population from which the sample is
actually drawn (e.g., UI students and faculty
in 2008-09 academic year).
• Sample frame: a specific list that closely
approximates all elements in the population
—from this the researcher selects units to
create the study sample (Vandal database of
UI students and faculty in 2008-09).

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 The Language of Sampling
• Sample: a set of cases that is drawn from a
larger pool and used to make
generalizations about the population

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 SAMPLING PROCESS
• Factors to be considered in sampling
1. Clarify the sampling frame:- this is a
description of the set of all possible
individuals whom you would choose for
your sample.

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 Cont’
Process
i. Identify a specific unit e.g households in a
village or district
ii. Identify the boundaries of the unit

2. Decide on an appropriate sample size:

the size influences the validity of your
findings. The size is determined by:

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 Cont’

i. Budget and resources

ii. No. of groups to be analyzed
iii. Time available
iv. Variation within the population
v. Maximum allowable error (determined
statistically)

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 Sample size determination

• Determination of the required sample

requires information on;
– Baseline value; mean, variance, or
prevalence value
– Population size
– Confidence interval to be used
– Error level

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 Sampling process…….

• 3. Select the sampling method; with

your sample size you can choose the
sampling method. The choice of method
will depend on the type of information
required.

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 Types of Sampling

• There are 2 types of sampling:

– Probability sampling
– Non-Probability sampling

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 Probability Sampling
• A sample must be representative of the population
with respect to the variables of interest.
• A sample will be representative of the population
from which it is selected if each member of the
population has an equal chance (probability) of being
selected.
• Probability samples are more accurate than non-
probability samples
– They remove conscious and unconscious sampling bias.
• Probability samples allow us to estimate the
accuracy of the sample.
• Probability samples permit the estimation of
population parameters.
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 Simple Random samples
• Elements selected at random
• Assign each element a number
• Select elements for study by:
Using a table of random numbers

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 Systematic Random Sampling
(SS)
• A random sampling process in which every kth (e.g. every 5th element) or
member of the population is selected for the sample after a random start is
determined.
Example

Population (N) = 2000, sample size (n) = 50, k=N/n,

so k = 2000/50 = 40
Use a table of random numbers to determine the starting
point for selecting every 40th subject

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 SS Cont’……

With list of the 2000 subjects in the sampling frame, go

to the starting point, and select every 40th name on the
list until the sample size is reached. Probably will have
to return to the beginning of the list to complete the
selection of the sample.

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 Stratified Sampling (StS)
• Population is divided into subgroups, called strata,
according to some variable or variables in importance
to the study.
• Variables often used include: age, gender, ethnic origin,
SES, diagnosis, geographic region, institution, or type
of care

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 Example

• For example, a researcher may be interested in

voter opinion concerning the issue of the
constitution.
• Accordingly, the sampling frame is separated into
strata based on regions. It is considered important
to analyse the population by regions.

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 Stratified …..

• The primary purpose in the sample selection

process is to make certain that each stratum is
represented by an adequate sample size.
• For example, the table below shows the various
regions and their overall population. A sample
size of 600 is required, from a population of
10,000

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 Stratified……….
REGION POPULATION % EXPECTED % OF
(STRATAS) SIZE (IN PROPORTIONATE SAMPLE
THOUSANDS) SAMPLE
REPRESENTATIONS

Rift Valley 6000 60.0 360 60.0

Central 1500 15.0 90 15.0
Eastern 1500 15.0 90 15.0
Nairobi 1000 10.0 60 10.0
TOTAL 10,000 100 600 (n) 100

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 Cluster sampling
• A random sampling process that involves stages of
sampling
• The population is first listed by clusters or
categories
Examples:
• In a city, the list of all the individual persons
staying in the houses may be difficult to obtain or
even may be not available but a list of all the
houses in the city may be available. So every
individual person will be treated as sampling unit
and every house will be a cluster.
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 Cluster sampling
• The list of all the agricultural farms in a village or a
district may not be easily available but the list of
village or districts are generally available. Every
farm in sampling unit and every village or district is
the cluster.
• Its easier, faster, cheaper and convenient to collect
information on clusters rather than on sampling
units.
• In both examples, draw a sample of clusters from
houses/villages and then collect the observations on
all the sampling units available in the selected
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clusters.
 Cluster sampling
• Is used when it is not possible to obtain a
sampling frame because the population is
either very large or scattered over a large
geographical are
• It involves selection of an intact group.
• All members of an intact group are
included in the sample and each member
becomes a unit of observation.

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 Example….
• To study patients suffering from Malaria
in Kenya, (Its time consuming and
expensive for one to research on all
malaria patients hospitalized in Kenya).
So confine yourself to district hos’.
• A list of all district hos’ would be
compiled and two hos’ randomly selected.
All malaria patients hospitalized would
then be the respondents…

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 Cluster sampling Cont’….

• NOTE:
• It is the group or clusters that are randomly
selected and not the individuals or cases.
• It is assumed that clusters are similar in
characteristic.

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 Steps in Cluster Sampling
• Identify the population
• Define the cluster forming the population
• Determine the required sample size
• List all the clusters in a random order
• Using the table of random numbers, select the
required number of clusters according to the
sample size required
• All members in the selected clusters are
included in the sample as units of observations
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 Multi-stage Sampling

• When populations are extremely complex, it is

necessary to go beyond two-stages in cluster
sampling.
• E.g if you want to carry out a survey on safe
motherhood in a particular district but you do not
have a list of households of women in
reproductive age.

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 Multi-stage…..

• You might have to begin with a random sample

of villages (primary sampling unit PSU) and
when you arrive at each village make a list of
households (SSU)

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 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Characteristics
 Not every element of the population has the
opportunity for selection in the sample
 No sampling frame
 Population parameters may be unknown
 Non-random selection
 More likely to produce a biased sample
 Restricts generalization

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 Types of Non-Probability sampling
Convenience - accidental & incidental
sampling
• Selection of the most readily available people or
objects for a study
• No way to determine representativeness
• Saves time and money

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 Types of Non-Probability sampling
Quota Sampling
• Selection of sample to reflect certain
characteristics of the population
• Similar to stratified but does not involve random
selection
• E.g. 50 males & 50 females; recruit the first 50
men and first 50 women that meet inclusion
criteria

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 Types of Non-Probability sampling
Purposive sampling
• The researcher uses his/her professional
judgement in selecting respondents/study area.
The researcher argument is the population
contain different types of individual relevant to
the study, and accessible with resources at hand.
• Handpicked subjects
• Typical subjects experiencing problem being
studied

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 Types of Non-Probability sampling
Snowball
• Also known as network sampling
• Subjects refer the researcher to others who might
be recruited as subjects

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 Karibu Sana! Welcome!
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