RADITON AND THERMAL

COURSE

EGP342

Professor

HELMY SALAH ABUELNAGA

 INTRODUCTION
- In geophysics: Measurements of physical properties either the
natural or artificial fields.

-Investigation of the changes in the physical properties (field)

measurements.

-Observation of the distortions of these fields which are termed

anomalies can lead to the detection of mineralizations and their
natures.

-Discovery of mineralizations (targets) which posses physical

properties different than these of their surrounding host rocks.
The difference between the target and the host rock when large (big)
enough, it can create (cause) anomaly.

-The nature and identity of mineralizations can be known from

the geophysical investigation.
- The measurement of the physical
properties in the field can help in various
studies of :
i- Geological environment,
ii- Mineral exploration ( detection of
mineralizations ,
ii- Lithological (rock unit) mapping, and
iv-Mapping of geological structure
(tectonics).
THEORY OF NUCLEAR RADIATION
-The Nuclear radiation always surrounds the naturally radioactive
(r.a.) materials (elements).
They are most useful in detection of (r.a.) minerals of the three well- -
known naturally occurrence r.a. elements; radio-potassium 40K,
.uranium and thorium
There is no other class of minerals whose exploration depends on -
geophysics to the same extent as radioactive minerals (containing
.r.a. elements)
Therefore, a nuclear radiation detector is always required and is a -
necessity to detect the radioactivity which is the process by which the
.nuclei of an element (parent or mother) spontaneously decay
The resultant is a new type of element and nuclear radiation (s). -
The newly –formed elements (daughters),are r. a. and yield till an
end product newly –formed elements r. a. elements (daughters), till
an end product is reached, i.e., a stable element (lead:pb)
The whole assembly of r.a. elements constitute the decay -
“or disintegration” series of the first (parent or mother)
.element in the series (sequence)
In the field of nuclear exploration geophysics the primary -
concern is the natural radioactivity (α and β particles as
.well as γ- rays)
There are a number of natural radioisotopes, each of
.which possesses its decay series
-In this field of study, the primary concern is related to the
mentioned three radio-isotopes:40K , 238U and 232Th. The
first r. a. element is important for its widespread
occurrence in rocks and its significances as a geologic
(marker). The latter two r. a. element are important for
their strategic, economic and commercial significance.
 Basic radiation awareness
What is Radiation and radioactivity?

-Radiation: is energy in motion either as particles

or electromagnetic waves.

-Radioactivity: Unstable atoms trying to become

stable by emitting radiation in the form of
particles or energy

6
7
2. Ionizing Radiation

8
1-Non ionizing radiation

Non ionizing radiation does not have enough energy to

remove electrons from a neutral atom.

Non ionizing radiation can harm you but is not a major

concern of this part.
Examples are Light and heat are types of radiation
1-Microwaves that we can feel or see
2-Radio waves
3-Visible light
4-Heat
5-Infra light
6-Lasers

9
 Gamma Radiation
 Wave type of radiation - non-particulate
 Photons that originate from the nucleus of unstable
atoms
 No mass and no charge

 Travel many feet in air

 Lead or steel used as shielding

-ray
10
X-rays
-Photons

High energy, not particles

Longer wavelength than gamma rays, lower energy
-Distinguished from gamma rays by source

Gamma rays originate in the nucleus

X-rays come from electron shells or from interaction
with a particle passing

11/11/2008 11
 Neutrons
Neutrons also radiation when moving
Associated with nuclear reactors and with
industrial applications
“High” mass, but uncharged, more
difficult to detect/measure.
Depending on energy level:
a) bounce off nuclei, scatter
b) get absorbed, create isotopes
c) get absorbed, initiate fission reactions.

Un-Charged particles

12
Types of Radiation Hazards
Internal
• External Exposure - Contamination

- whole-body or partial-body
external radioactive External
Contamination
material: on the skin
- from gamma photons, x-rays or External
high-energy beta particles Exposure
emitted from a source outside
the body
• Internal Dose
- internal radioactive material:
inhaled, swallowed, absorbed
through skin or wounds

13
14
Types of ionizing radiation

15
Groups with higher risks
Women and children
3
ERR per Sv

0
0-9 10-19 20-39 40+
age at exposure (years)
male female

16
-Most environmental radiation (82%) is from
natural sources. By far the largest source is
radon. While radon has always been present in
the environment.
-Manmade radiation-mostly from medical uses
and consumer products - add about 18% to our
total exposure.

17
18
 IMPORTANT
The most important and significant natural radiations-
emitted during r. a. decay-out of the three principal
radiations- are the γ- rays, due to their considerable
penetration (several hundred meters in the air and several
.tens of centimeters in the rocks)
Consequently, these radiation (the γ- rays) can point out -
(indicate or show) r.a. sources from remote distances
.through air
The β particles- due to their limited penetration and hence-
their limited range reaching few tens of centimeters in air
–are used in assay purposes and face scanning in uranium
.mines
The α particles- for their very limited -
penetration and therefore their very limited
range attaining few centimeters in air –are
used in detection of radon “Rn’ gas, which is
a gaseous element in the uranium and
thorium decay series. It is also used –
.sometimes- in assay purposes
The nuclear radiation possesses two useful-
:parameters
The (flux) and the (energy)
The flux of γ- rays indicates the “amount” of the
r.a. materials (elements) present, and can be easily
measured by a suitable wide- band instrument
.”called “Radiometer
The units of flux are either the counts per secod -
“cps or c/s” or pulses per second “pps or p/s”, or a
division of Roentgen per hour(R/h) which is the
micro- Roentgen per hour (µR/h). The Roentgen is
the quantity of γ- radiation which produces
.2.083x109 pairs of ions/c.c of air at N.T.P.. is (eV)
The energy of γ- rays is a very useful-
parameter for determining the element which
.emits the radiation (its identity)
The unit of energy extensively employed in -
nuclear and atomic physics. It is the energy
acquired by an electron in falling freely
through a potential difference of one volt. It is
.equal to 1.602x10-19 joule (j)
The suitable instruments are called-
. (discriminators or radiospectrometers)
They are electronically complex, narrow-band radiometers. The
spectrometers are capable of discriminating the radiations
.originating from the three r. a. element: K,U and Th

The detected γ- radiation in the case of K arises from 40K itself-•

.which possess a characteristic γ- rays energy of 1.46 MeV

In the cases of U and Th , the γ- radiation do not arise from 238 U or•
232
Th themselves, but from 214Bi &208Tl which possess characteristic
of γ- ray energies of 1.76&2.62 MeV respectively. They are chosen
for their relative abundance within their decay series and their
energetic and characteristic γ- rays

This method of detecting daughter elements other than parent •

elements in the two decay series can lead to erroneous results in the
.case of serious
disequilibrium.
The three show the ability of α – and β – -
particles as well as γ- rays emitted by the
three naturally –occurring radioelement K,U
and Th. and their decay series (daughter
products) to penetrate different substances,
which proved to be different types of ionizing
radiation
PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF
RADIOACTIVITY METHODS
26
:Mass and Radioactivity-
:Structure of the atom
The atom is constituted from positively--
charged nucleus and negatively-charged
electrons (e- ) moving in the electric field of
.nucleus
The atomic nucleus consists of positively -
charged protons (p+ ) and neutrons (n) without
.electric change (neutral or non charged)
The protons (p+ ) and the neutrons (n) are -
called “nucleons” and represent two states
.with different charges
The atomic number (z) of the atom is the number of -
protons (p+ ) in the nucleus. It equals the number of
.electrons (e) for a natural non ionized atom
The atomic mass (M) of the atom is the sum of the -
.masses of the nucleons ( p+ and n) and electrons (e- )
.The mass of the protons (p+ ):mp=1.67x10-24 gm -
.The mass of the electrons (e):me-=9.11x10-28gm -
.The linear dimensions of the nucleus~=10-15 to 10-14m -
The linear dimensions of the cloud of electron~= 10 -10 m -
The difference between the atoms (atomic nuclei) of the -
chemical elements is a result of the difference in the
.number of protons (p+ ) in their nuclei
The difference in the number of -
neutrons (n) in the atomic nuclei of equal
number of protons (p+ ) , does not change
the chemical properties of the atoms and
.are called “isotopes” of the element
If the isotope denoted “x”, the atomic-
mass “M’ , and the atomic number “Z”,
,.then it is written in the form Mxz, e.g
.U92 ,
232
Th90 and 40K19, ……etc 238
 NUCLEAR TRANSFORMATIONS

The radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of nuclear radiation

.(i.e.
α ,β and γ-) by a substance
The radioactive transformations don’t depend on external -

..condition, but are the properties of the atomic nuclei

The α particles have positive charge and are identical to helium -

4
.nucleus; H2

The
β particles are stream of fast electrons -
 -
The γ rays are hard electromagnetic (e.m.) radiation -

.with
All r. a.the greatestrays
radiation penetrating
- power

,have chemical action –

,Cause darkening of the photographic plates and films -

ionize gases and sometimes liquids and solids, and -

Cause luminescence of number of solids and liqudes. –

These properties represent the bases of the detection of

 LOW OF RADIATION DECAY
Transformations of atomic nuclei (accompanied) by the emission of
alpha and beta particles are called alpha and beta decay. The term
"gamma decay" is never used. Natural radioactivity is observed, as
a rule, in the heavy nuclei of elements after lead in the periodic table.
There also exist light naturally radioactive nuclei: the potassium
isotope 40K, the carbon isotope 14C, the rubidium isotope 87Rb, and
other. Radioactive transformations are a property of atomic nuclei
and do not depend on whether a substance is in the form of a
chemically pure element or a chemical compound. The
disintegrating nucleus is called the parent; and the nucleus of the
product disintegration the daughter one.
Alpha decay: M
XZ → M-4
YZ-2 + 4He2
Beta decay M
XZ → M
YZ+1 + oe-1
K capture M
XZ + oe-1 → M
YZ-1
Where X is the symbol of the chemical element corresponding to the parent nucleus,
Y is the symbol of the chemical element corresponding to the daughter nucleus,
4
He2 is the nucleus of a helium isotope, & 0e-1 is the designation of an electron
 Daughter nuclei, as a rule, are radioactive
themselves. A radioactive series (family) is defined as
a sequence of radioactive transformations from a
certain parent nucleus. There are three naturally
radioactive families, which- according to the parent
nucleus-are called: the uranium family 238U, the
thorium family 232Th, and the potassium family 40K. A
chain of α -and β- decays takes place in each of the
radioactive families. In the first two naturally
radioactive series, the radioactive transformations
terminate on stable nuclei of lead isotope
atomic nuclei are statistical processes. It is impossible to predict which nucleus of a
radioactive isotope will decay at a given instant. The decay of any of nuclei is an event
having an equal probability.
The fundamental law of radioactive decay is:
Nt=No e-λt I ,N
0 0

Where No is the initial number of radioactive nuclei at the initial moment of time t =
o
I /2 , N /2
Nt is the number of radioactive nuclei at any moment of time, and 0 0

λ is the decay constant that determine the rate of radioactive decay and
= -ΔN/N /Δt
The minus sign indicates that the number of nuclei diminishes as a result of
radioactive decay.
The quantity τ = 1/λ is called the mean live time of a radioactive isotope .The half
life T is defined as the time during which half of the original nuclei decay

T= 0.693 / λ = 0.693/ λ or
τ = 1/ λ = 1/0.693 T = 1.443 T
It is difficult in practice to determine N, but since
It is well known that Nα I, the intensity I of the radiation is used instead of N.
 Natural Sources of Radioactivity
The disintegration of natural radioactive elements
is accompanied by the emission of alpha particles,
beta particles and electromagnetic radiation. The
electromagnetic radiation is generally referred to as
gamma radiation when emitted by the nucleus, and X-
radiation when origination from the electrons orbiting
the nucleus.
 All common rock types and the soils derived from them
contain a significant amount of natural radioactive elements
(radioelements) that emit gamma radiation of which the three
major sources are the three naturally occurring radioelements:
a) Potassium-40, 0.012% of the total potassium and emits
gamma rays of an energy of 1.46 Mev;
b) Decay products in the uranium-238 and uranium-235 decay
series;
c) Decay products in the thorium-232 decay series.
Table showing the radioelement concentration in crustal rocks (Clark et al, 1966).
The natural radioactive elements could be
divided into:
1)Natural radioactive element (n.r.e) forming
disintegration series: 238U, 235U and 232Th.

2) Natural radioactive elements, which do not

have any disintegration series: 40K.
 1a) And 1b) Uranium
Natural uranium consists principally of two isotopes, 238U and
235
U, of which the first one is the most abundant (99.73%) and
is the only one of concern under field survey conditions. The
radioactive decay of 238U is complex and passes through 14
steps, before it reaches the final stable end product. Uranium
with its decay products is for more radioactive than
potassium. The principal gamma emission is associated with
214
pb and 214Bi and not directly with 238U. The cumulative half-
lives of decay products up to their formation (214pb & 214Bi) are
approximately 330000 years. It should be noted that one of
the steps in the decay chain preceding the formation of 214pb
and 214Bi is the gas 222Rn, and also that eight of the
disintegrations are accompanied by the formation of alpha
particle which are helium nuclei.
Table showing the radiometric family of 238U, and the sequence of its conversion into
other elements, as well as the principal characteristic of the series.

Isotope Principal gamma ray energy

Half-life Principal radiation
(Mev)
238
U92 4.51*109 y Α
234 Th
90 24.1 d Β
234
Pa91 2.18 m Β Protactinium
234
U92 2.48*105 y Α
230Th
90 8.0*104 y Α
226
Ra88 1.622*103 y Α
222
Rn86 3.82 d Α
218
Po84 3.05 m Α Polonium
214
pb82 26.8 m β, γ 0.29 , 0.35
214
Bi83 19.8 m β,γ 0.61 , 1.12 , 1.76
214
Po84 1.6*10-3 s Α
210
pb82 21.3 y Β
210
Bi83 5.01 d Β
210
Po84 138.4 d Α
206
pb82 stable
 Radon Decay Products (RDPs)

Uranium-238 Radon-222 Bismuth-210

  
Thorium-234 Polonium-218 Polonium-210
  
Protactinium-234 Lead-214 Lead-206
  (Stable)
Uranium-234 Bismuth-214
 
Thorium-230 Polonium-214
 
Uranium 238
Radium-226 Lead-210 Decay Series
 
42
 Table showing the radiometric family of 235U, and the sequence of its conversion
into other elements, as well as the principal characteristic of the series.

Isotope Half-life Principal radiation

235
U92 713*108 y α, γ
231
Th90 25.54 m Β
231
Pa91 3.43*104 y Α
227
Ac89 22 y β Actinium
227
Th90 18.6 d Α
β α 223
Fr87 21 m β Francium
223
Ra88 11.2 d Α
219
Rn86 3.92 s Α
215
Po84 183*10-3 s Α
211
pb82 35.1 m Β
211
Bi83 2.16 m Β ,γ
211
Po84 α 4.79 m
α β 207
Ti81 0.52 s Thallium, Β ,γ
207
pb82 Stable
 Table showing the radiometric family of 232th, and the sequence of its
conversion into other elements, as well as the principal characteristic of the
series.
Principal gamma ray
Principal
Isotope Half-life energy Mev
radiation
(Mev)
232
Th90 1.39*1010 y Α
228
Ra88 5.75 y Β
228
Ac89 6.13 h Β, γ 0.91, 0.96
228
Th90 1.91 y Α
224
Ra88 3.64 d Α
220
Rn86 55.3 s Α
216
Po84 0.15 s Α
212
pb82 10.64 h Β 0.24
212
Bi83 60.6 m Β 0.73
212
Po84 α 3*10-7 s Α
α 3.1 m Β 0.51, 0.58, 2.62
208
Tl81
208
pb82 β Stable
2) Potassium
There are three natural isotopes of potassium. Only one
(40K) of the several natural isotopes of potassium is
radioactive. It has a relative isotopic abundance of only
0.0118%. It decays by B- (89% of all disintegrations) and
K-capture (11%). Because of the simple decay scheme, it is
characterized by single gamma-ray energy (1.46Mev). The
decay is said, therefore to be monoenergetic. The energy of
beta radiation is up to 1.33 Mev (maximum).
Table shows the characteristics of the 40
K-decay scheme.

Gamma ray
Radiatio
Decay scheme Half-life energy
n
(Mev)
40
K19 1.25*109 y β, γ, 1.4608

40
Ca20 +β, γ Stable B-
(89%
40
Ar18 + β, γ Stable K-
capture (11%).
 Background Radiation:
Several other sources of gamma radiation can also be detected in the
field. Cosmic radiation, a flux of charged particles and neutrons of high
energies, because of its interaction with the atmosphere and the detectors
produces a measurable signal.
- The intensity of this cosmic contribution increases with altitude.
-Radioactive gases from the decay series of uranium-238 and thorium-
232 escape into the air and their decay products are significant emitters
of gamma radiation. Radon-222, because of its relatively long half-live
of 3.8 days, can be transported over considerable distances in the air.
------- Products of nuclear weapon tests, deposited on the surface of the
ground are found up to depth of 15 cm.
The energy of the gamma radiation from this nuclear fallout is generally
less than 1 Mev.
-Traces concentrations of radioactive elements in the instrument and
.

noise associated with the electronics are further contributions of the

measured radiation.
-The normal crustal material, most of these ”background” sources of
radiation represent between 5 and 15% of the total gamma radiation.
-The mother element disintegrates in 2 directions: α- & β-
disintegration. The elements of the beginning of the series have big
or long half-lives, while the elements at the end of the series have
short half-lives.
Uranium itself does not emit γ-radiation, but its daughter products
(end of the series); i.e. of Ra
produces γ-radiation.

U
238
5% of γ-radiation produced
by the series.
226
Ra
pb
206
95% of γ-radiation
produced by the series
 Background Radiation:
The use of the atom "background" in geoscience should be
restricted to radiation, which does not originate from the
lithosphere.

For geoscientific purposes, radioactive background is

defined as the some effect of cosmic rays, atmospheric
radioactivity, and the radioactivity of the measuring system.
(B = C R + I R + R n)

There are many objections to the use of "background " as a

bases for reporting. What is included in the background?
How large an area? and what rock types?
Is the background itself abnormal relative to other rocks of
the same type elsewhere, or neighboring areas?. Such
method of reporting is inadequate for any serious scientific
work.
Instrument Calibration:
It is called, sometimes, the standardization of
the instrument. There are three types of
calibration.
1) By means of standard "Radium point source":

We know that 1 mg "Ra" gives 840 μR/h

at 1m.
 X is the exposure rate radiation in μR/h,
m is the mass of the "Ra" source in mg,
R is the distance in meters, and
•840 is the value in μR/h emitted by 1 mg “Ra” at one
meter.
The first problem:
It is the dependence on the type
of the detector (whether a GM
counter or a scintillation one).

The efficiency of both counters for

gamma radiation from a radium point
source is different, when for example
detecting potassium; the GM counter
registers 16 μR/h, while the scintillation
detector records only 9 μR/h.
The real problem now is: the lower the discrimination level, the higher
the count rate we obtain. This creates real problems when using different
devices with different lower energy discrimination levels in the mapping
of an area.
As a consequence from the previous discussion,
it could be stated that the calibration using point
radium sources is not good one. The different
efficiencies and the different lower discrimination
level of the different instruments make it difficult
to survey an area by numerous instrument.
2) Water Model
This is the second type of calibration of instruments.
The water model is composed of a tin or a barrel filled
with water. The lengths of the sides of this container are
40 cm approximately. The radium point source “Ra” is
placed inside the bottle at a certain depth (or level) equal
s nearly 18 cm from the top. In this case, the gamma
rays scatter in all direction similar to what happens in the
nature (rocks or layers). The detector “D” of the
instrument to be calibrated is put at a distance of about
10 cm from the top of the barrel
 The total- count rate in cps of the gamma radiation emitted by the “”Ra” point source is givenby
the following empirical formula:
NF,T -= C QeU/ M * NS,T
Where
NF,T is the total count rate measured in cps in the field, above the rock or layer with equivalent
uranium concentration QU in percent,
QeU is the equivalent uranium concentration of rock or the layer in the field in eU%
NS,T is the total count rate measured in cps, above the standard source (“Ra” point source in
the
water model),
M is the mass of “Ra” in the point radium source in gm, and
C is a constant =0.66*10-3 gm Ra /1% eU.
Therefore, the more simple formula could be determine the equivalent uranium concentration:
QeU = M. NF,T/ C . NS,T
If we want to measure QU in ppm eU and m in mg, the formula could be:
QeU =1* 104 / 0.66* 10-3 *103 . M * NF,T/ NS,T
=1.515 .104 . M * NF,T/ NS,T
The value of (M. NS,T) is always constant for a specified source and instrument, while the values
(NF,T and QeU) depends on the rock or layer in the field and are proportional to each other.
Consequently,the
Consequently, the calibration
calibration curve showing
curve the dependency
showing the dependency
of the total count rate in c/s, on the equivalent uranium
concentration in ppm, could be drawn. Therefore, using the
total count or gross count survey devices, the measured total
gamma activity (K, U, and TH) in cps could be expressed (or
transformed) into ppm eU using the calibration curve.
This kind of calibration is only possible for portable
(ground) instruments having small detector.
3) Rock Standards:
A series of three (or more) three dimensional (cylindrical) calibration sources
(or models) should be constructed and having a height of 50 cm and radius
depending upon the type of instrument (100 cms are enough for detectors
placed over the sources directly). They must approximate to the composition of
the natural geologic sources and have three different concentrations of U. The
radioelement (U) concentrations or radiometric equivalent concentrations of
these calibration facilities should be satisfactorily established by chemical or
radiometric analysis. The range of radiometric concentration of U is from 50 to
500 ppm eU.

In order to obtain a constant gamma-ray flux, precautions must be taken in the

construction of the concrete calibration pads to minimize the migration of radon
through the pore spaces. The pads can be made of concrete mixtures to which a
uranium mineral with low emanation characteristics has been added.
 c- Environmental Studies
The exposure rate (E) can be calculated from the
apparent concentrations of K (%), eU (ppm), and eTh
(ppm) using the expression (IAEA, 1991):
Exposure rate (μR/h) = 1.505 K (%) + 0.653 eU (ppm)
+ 0.287 eTh (ppm
The radiation exposure rate can be converted to
equivalent radiation dose rate through the use of a
simple conversion factor (IAEA, 1979), as follows.
•Dose rate (mSv/y) = 0.0833 * Exposure rate (µR/h)

(1 Ur = 1 ppm U = 0.6 μR/h = 4.3 * 10-14 A.kg-1).

1%K = 1.6 to 2.2 Ur
1 ppm eTh = 0.44 to 0.45 Ur