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L19 Equivalence Order
L19 Equivalence Order
Partial Orderings
A relation R on a set A is an equivalence relation if it has these properties:
R is reflexive
R is symmetric
R is transitive.
On the set A = {a, ,b, c, d}, = is the relation {<a,a>, <b,b>, <c,c>, <d,d>}
On the set of people the relation Sib = “has the same parents as” is an
equivalence:
Anyone has the same parents as themselves (so sibling is not quite the same)
If x has the same parents as y, then y has the same parents as x
If x has the same parents as y and y the same as z, then x has the same as z.
(if we allowed half-siblings this would not work)
For the relation Sib from earlier, [chris (me)] = {chris, jack, lizanne}
For any person p, [p] = {p, any r where r is a sibling of p}
We can see that the set of all equivalence classes for a relation R on the set A is
a partition of A (all equivalence classes are disjoint and A is their union)
On the set A = {a, b, c, d} we saw that = is the relation {<a,a>,<b,b>,<c,c>,<d,d>}
So the set of equivalence classes is { {a}, {b}, {c}, {d} }
What would be the relation, R2, for the partition { {a,b,c}, {d} } ?
R2 = {<a,a>, <a,b>, <a,c>, <b,a>, <b,b>, <b,c>, <c,a>, <c,b>, <c,c>, <d,d>}
Equivalence in propositional logic
Two propositions, P and Q, are equivalent if they have the same truth table:
PQ
For example: (r -> s) (~r v s)
This is an equivalence relation over propositions:
Reflexive: P P
Symmetric: if P Q, then Q P
Transitive: if P Q and Q R, then P R
For the equivalence over the propositions with a given set of primitives {p, q,
r,…} an equivalence class is a a set of propositions that all have the same truth
table.
For example, the following are all in one equivalence class (with many others)
((p -> q) & (q -> r)) -> (p -> r)
~(~(p & ~q) & ~(q & ~r) & ~(~(p & ~r)))
(p & ~q) | (q & ~r) | ~p | r
(p | q | ~p | r) & (p | ~r | ~p | r) & (~q | q | ~p | r) & (~q | ~r | ~p | r)
Definition 8.14 (Partial Order)
Let A be a set. A relation ≼ on A is a partial order if it has these properties:
reflexive,
antisymmetric,
transitive
Given any set, say A = {a,b,c}, consider the relation ⊆ on P(A), the power set
of A. It is a partial order.
{a,b,c}
{b,c}
{a,b} {a,c}
{}
Rather then show all arrows for the relation, we show those necessary to define
the relation by adding loops for reflexive and adding the transitive closure.
The Hasse diagram for the the relation ⊆ on P(A) for A = {a,b,c}.
For a partial ordering, we assume that each element is related to itself.
We assume there are no arrows between elements at the same level.
We assume that if there is an arrow x to y and y to z, then <x,z> is in the relation
{a,b,c}
{b,c}
{a,b} {a,c}
{}
Consider the relation | (divides) on a finite set
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15}
8 12
4 6 9 10 14 15
2 3 5 7 11 13
1
Consider the relation divides on the set {z ∈ Z : z | 30}
30
6 10 15
2 3 5
1
We have seen in the Hasse diagrams that partial orders can have elements
that are not comparable, such as {a,b} and {b,c} in the diagram for P(A).
Neither is a subset of the other.
When for a partial order <, either a < b or b < a, then they are comparable,
otherwise they are incomparable.
The Hasse diagram for a total order is boring, it is simply a row (or tower)
of arrows.
Minimal and maximal elements. A minimal element in a partial order < on a set S
is an element x ∈ S such that for any y ∈ S such that y != x then not( y < x )
2 3 5 7
For a partial relation < on a set S,
a minimum element is an element x ∈ S such that for all y ∈ S, x < y
a maximum element is an element x ∈ S such that for all y ∈ S, y < x
2 3 5
1
The last theorem for the semester:
Theorem 8.3 (Every partial order has a minimal/maximal element on a finite set)