ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

PRINCIPALS OF ELECTRICITY: USEABLE ENERGY FROM BURNING FOSSIL FUEL OF OIL AND COAL, RESULTING HEAT
ENERGY USED AS HEAT AND LIGHT OR CONVERTED BY MACHINES INTO MOTION. HIS CENTURY THIS IS CONVERTED
TO ELECTRICITY BY GENERATORS. EFFICIENCY RARELY ABOVE 40%.
26.1 ELECTRIC ENERGY- Unstable: lightning or static charges or natural in galvanic cells which causes corrosion. Electric energy
cannot be stored. Most electric energy in the form of A-C alternating current from a-c generator(alternators). Direct current (d-c) only
when requiring large amounts of d-c. Ex. elevators. Smaller use batteries or rectifiers: telephone, signal equipment, controls.
26.2 UNIT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT: THE AMPERE- Electricity flowing in a conductor-current or amperage(amp) or A),
represented by l or i. Current is a measure of flow. Velocity of propagation is constant, I

Fig. 2 Current flows in the electric circuit as a result of

the voltage (potential difference) V that exists between
the terminals of the battery. By convention, current
direction is from positive (+) to negative (-) in the circuit
(and from - to + inside the battery).
Fig. 1 Electric-hydraulic analogy. The circuits show that voltage
is analogous to pressure, current to flow, friction to resistance,
wiring to piping, and switches to valves.
26.3 UNIT OF ELECTRIC POTENTIAL: THE VOLT: V- Electron movement and concomitant energy(electricity) caused by creating a higher positive electric
charge at one point on a conductor than exists at another point on the same conductor. Created by:
A. Electrochemical (battery)- chemical action causes positive(+) charges to collect on positive terminal or negative(-) charges to collect on negative terminal.
Tendency to flow between electrified particles on the terminal.
This force or tendency is called potential difference or
voltage. Higher voltage (pressure), higher current(flow) for a given resistance (friction).
26.4 UNIT OF ELECTRIC RESISTANCE: THE OHM: R or Z- Flow of fluid in hydraulic system is resisted by friction. The flow of current in an electric circuit is
resisted by resistance.
A. d-c current- resistance is R
B. a-c current-resistance is called impedance-Z. Called the OHM
C. Resistance. Metals are least resistant, called conductors: silver, gold and platinum, copper, aluminum. Insulators resist flow of current: glass, micro, rubber,
oil, distilled water, porcelain, synthetic such as phonemic compounds(rubber and plastic wire coverings, porcelain lamp sockets, oil immersed switches.
26.5 OHM'S LAW-
A. Current in d-c circuit is directly proportional to the voltage V and inversely proportional to the resistance R of the circuit.
I=V/R
B. Current in a-c circuit same except use a-c impedance.
Do not use V=IR as does not state the actual physical situation
26.6 CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS- Series and Parallel. Same for a-, d-calculations different and more complicated.
Electric circuit is a complete conducting path that carries current from a source of electricity to and through some electrical device(for Load) and back to the
source. Must be closed for current to flow. The current is the same for all parts of the circuit.
A. Series Circuits- circuits connected one after the other. Resistance's and voltages add.
Connection points are referred to on wiring diagrams as a,b,c,d, etc. See 26.3

Fig. 1 A series circuit always contains a voltage source (here,

Fig. 1 Physical and graphic representation of series connection the battery), and a load (R). In this circuit we have also shown
of batteries and resistors. the resistance of the connecting wires, for accuracy. Such
resistances are normally neglected because they usually are
very small as compared to the load resistance.
B. Parallel or Multiple Circuits- - Two or more branches or loads in a circuit are connected between two points. Multiple loads are across the same voltage and
constitute separate circuits. Circuit is the sum of the individual currents in the branches.
IT= 11 + 12 + 13
Total current is sum of all branches, but current in each branch is result of separate Ohm's Law calculation.
Parallel-standard for all buildings.
Ohm's Law-current is inversely proportional to resistance. Resistance drops, current rises.
Short circuit is when no resistance, current rises to high level(start fire if no properly protect-ed.

Fig. 1 In a parallel connection the flow divides between the

branches, but the pressure is the same in each branch.

and so on. The battery voltage may then be called (b) The voltage drop across the load is
Vab=12 v; the voltage across the load resistance,
Ved=11.5 V; and the resistance of the two wire Vcd = I X Red = 10 x 1.15 = 11.5 v
Rhe+Rda = 0.04 ohm. The positive and negative
Terminals of the battery are always shown. Series circuits have very limited application in
Building wiring.
 Fig. 1 b) Parallel Circuits. When two or more branches or loads
in a circuit are connected between the same two points. They
are said to be connected in parallel or multiple. Such an
arrangement and its hydraulic equivalent are shown in Fig.
14.5. From the circuit of Fig. 14.6 it should be apparent that the
voltage across each load is the same. But the current in each
load (branch) depends on the resistance of that load. Parallel
loads, in effect, constitute separate circuits. From this we
conclude that in this arrangement. The total current in the
circuit is the sum of individual

Fig. 2 Graphic representation of dc voltages with positive and

negative polarity.

26.7 DIRECT CURRENT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT (d-c and a-c)

A. d-c occurs when current flow takes place at constant time rate, unvarying and same directions around circuit.

B. If flow carting in time and direction-a-c. One cycle is the distance along the time axis spanned by a positive and a negative a-c
loop. Number of cycles in 1 second = frequency. In US a-c frequency of 60 cycles per second (60 hertz-Hz).
Impedance-Z ohms. I=V/Z
Fig. 3 Graphic representation of a pure, single frequency
alternating current (ac). The figure shown in a sine wave. Note
that a complete cycle includes both the positive and negative
loops. The number of full cycles in one second is defined as the
frequency of the current (or voltage).
26.8 ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION DC
With respect to generation of large amounts of power, piezoelectric and thermoelectric effects can be ignored.
Photovoltaic (PV)- power from solar cells
Battery and de generator- source of everyday de electricity actually an ac generator with an device( communicator) attached that
rectifies the ac to de, the battery is still the major direct source of dc.
Principal source of de power- elevator motors and standby power.
26.9 ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION-AC
AC current produced by ac generator, called an alternator.
Based on 1831 Michael Faradays principal of electromagnetic induction.
This states that when an electrical conductor is moved in a magnetic field, a voltage Is induces in the conductor. The direction of the
movement determines the polarity of the induced voltage.

Fig. 1 The action fundamental to all generators. When a

conductor of electricity moves through a magnetic filed, a
voltage is induced in the conductor, with polarity as shown.

Fig. 2 Rotating a coil in a magnetic field produces an alternating

sinusoidal voltage at terminals a and b because of the
alternating polarity (see Fig. 14.25).
26.10 POWER AND ENERGY
Energy is the technical term for the more common expression work.
Power is the rate at which energy is used. It is the rate at which work is done.
It takes a fixed amount of energy to lift a weight a given distance either quickly or slowly, but the faster it is lifted, the more power it
requires.
Energy is the product of power and time:
Energy (work)- power x time.
In I-P system: Unit of power- horsepower, Btu per hour, watt or kilowatt.
In SI system: joule per second, calorie per second, watt, kilowatt
Power is expressed as gallons (liters) of oil per hour, cubic feet (cubic meters) of gas per minute and tone (kilograms) of coal per
day
26.11 POWER IN ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
Watt (W)- unit of power
1000 Watts- kilowatt (kW)
Power input in watts to any electrical device having a resistance R and current
(1) is:
W=1'R=(1) (R)
IN dc- Ohms Law V=IR and because W=I (IR), so W=VI
W= watts R=ohms I=amperes V= volts
In ac Impedance is combination of de resistance and ac resistance called reactance.
W=VI x pf
pf is power factor. If missing the product is known as amperes.
26.12 ENERGY IN ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
Because energy = power x time, energy used is directly proportional to both the
power of a system and the length of time it is in operation.
Units known as watt-hours (Wh) or kilowatt-hours (kWh)
26.13 ELECTRIC DEMAND CHARGES
Electric utility companies levy a kW demand charge on all but individual residential and a few special category customers.
Some use sliding window interval timing technique that starts a new interval every minute and updates the maximum interval
demand accordingly.
CHAPTER 27-ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND MATERIALS: SERVICE AND UTILI-ZATION:
27.1 ELECTRIC SERVICE-
A. Conditions for above (overhead service drop) or below utility line(underground service lateral)
1. Length of service run.
2. Type of terrain
3. Customer participation
4. Service Voltage
5. Size and nature of electric load
6. Importance of appearance.
7. Local practices and ordinances
8. Maintenance and service continually
9. Weather conditions
10. Type of interbuilding distribution
27.2 OVERHEAD SERVICE- advantage: low cost (10-50% LOWER).
If over several hundred feet or more, voltage higher (Exceeding 5000)than utilization level may be involved. Overhead line is easily maintained,
repaired, faults easily located, service continuity. If extreme weather conditions (heavy loading areas), more outages- underground lines.
A. Type of cables:
1. Bare- copper cable supported on porcelain or glass insulators on crossarms-high voltage of 2.4 kV and higher.
2. Weatherproof-Secondary porcelain circuits at 600V and below, run on porcelain spool secondary racks with 1/c weatherproof cable as the
conductor.
3. Preassembled aerial cable-3 or 4 insulated cable wrapped together with metallic tape and suspended by hooks from poles- up to 15 kV.
27.3 UNDERGROUND SERVICE- Attractive, service reliability, long life, high cost. To overcome cost- buried techniques eliminate raceways.
Direct buried cannot be pulled out if faults.
A. Basis of consideration
1. Cost premium for underground raceways installation, including handholes if required.
2. Record of outages for direct burial installation
3. Cost and availability of repair service(utilities frequently will repair customer owned underground service laterals for a fee)
4. Impact of electric service outage in terms of time delays, inconvenience, necessity to dig up lawns and paved areas, and cost impact in the
case of a commercial facility.
27.4 UNDERGROUND WIRING-
A.. Methods for underground wiring.
1. Direct burial (Fig 26.3)-low cost, ease of installation
2. Installation of Type I, concrete encased duct(Fig 26.4)-high price, high strength, high
permanence
3. Installation of Type II, direct burial duct(Fig 26.4)-medium cost, little strength
B. Nonmetallic duct- 2 thicknesses. Most frequently used without concrete en-casement for low voltage and signal wiring and with encasement
for high voltage wiring. Lower cost and freedom of corrosion than metallic. Manhole or pulling hand-hole when run is over several hundred
feet( depends on pulling distance).
1. NEMA Type lI-heavy all- no concrete, heavy wall.
2. NECMA Type I-thinner wall, intended for encasement in minimum of 2 inches of concrete.
C. Trade Names
1. Asbestos-cement and fiber ducts-Transite and Orangeberg.
2. Plastic-PVC
D. Manholes are for high voltage, large duct banks
E. Handholes -low voltage, signal cables, small no. of cables.

Manholes and handholes can be precast, usually cheaper than field formed and poured.

Cable- special for underground wiring. Type SE is service entrance cable, with moisture and flame-resistant covering. If provided with moisture
proofing- SEU. Underground cable for less than service runs- UF.
Notes:
1.Omit item #10 if conduct is used.
2.Cold water pipe ground may be used in heu of ground rod.
3.Meters may alternatively be placed inside the building.

Detail of typical overhead electric service to a four-family residency. Note

that meters in small residential buildings are frequently placed on the exterior
of the building. They can alternatively be installed inside. Provided that ready
access is available or that some type of remote meter reading system is
installed.
27.5- SERVICE EQUIPMENT-Transformer between high voltage incoming lines and secondary service conductors. Occurs when
building voltage is different form utility voltage.
Pole or pad mounted, or room or vault in building.
27.6 TRANSFORMERS-Device that changes or transforms the alternating current of one voltage to alternating current of another
voltage. Can't be used for d-c. Step- down. Secondary voltages- 120,208,240,277 & 480V. Primary- 2400, 4260, 7200, 12,470,
13,200V

A. Available in single and three phase construction. Capacity rated as kVa(kilovolt

-amperes)/
1. Single-product of full load current and voltage. Voltages are different on primary and secondary so are the currents-kVa remains
constant.
B. Cooling medium- transformer characteristic -either air (dry) or liquid filled. Choice depends on electrical characteristics, proposed
physical location, cost. Usually units rated above 5kV-liquid and 600 V are dry. Inside usually dry-light and power circuits. Load
center are unit substation-in and out. Distribution transformers mounted on pole or concrete pad outdoors. Substation transformers
are large and concrete pad.
Mineral oil-cheapest liquid transformer coolant.-flammable.
Nonflammable liquid
coolant-called askarels, contain polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB). PCB banned in 1979
-ecological impact.
C. Insulation class of transformer affects temperature rise, operating temperature, physical size, electrical power losses, overload
capacity, life. In order of decreasing physical size and increasing operating temperatures we have, for dry transformers, 105,150,185
and 220dC that represent organic, inorganic and silicone insulating materials.

Vplp = Vl
where V, is primary voltage 1, is primary current
V, is secondary voltage
I, is secondary current
 Three-phase bank.
High-fire-point paraffinic hydrocarbon fluid, manufactured expressly as a transformer dielectric-coolant.
Solid dielectrics used for special installation, such as high hazard areas.

27.7 TRANSFORMERS OUTDOORS- Necessary when the facility utilization voltage is different from the utility voltage.
A. Outdoor Installation advantage.
1. No building space required
2. Reduced noise problem within building
3. Lower cost
4. Ease of maintenance and replacement
5. No interior heat problem
6. Opportunity to use low cost, long life oil filled units
Outdoor disadvantage.
1. Heat if no shady area
2. Vandalism
3. Appearance
Indoor installation advantage.
1. Space (basement)
2. More noise in available exterior space
3. Cost high if long secondary run
4. Heat handled by louvers or areaways adjoining basement
5. When transformer load is fairly constant.
6. No shady area

Pad mount most popular type of exterior transformer.

 Fig. 1 Service transformer arrangements. (a) high-voltage
service with step-down service transformer at the facility, and
(b) low-voltage service, with transformation at both ends of a
long service run.

27.8 TRANSFORMERS INDOORS; HEAT LOSS-from heat generating properties. 1 to 1-1/2% of the transformers rating, depending
on type is converted to heat at full load. Unless heat is used-ventilation must be provided too keep the ambient temperature from
exceeding 40dC.
A. Natural convection ventilation is most desirable: transformer room on exterior wall. Size of free area for ventilation opening is 3 in.
/KVA of capacity + 1 in /KVA for switchgear losses.
If use a louver- double size of opening. Put 1/2 louver near ceiling and 1/2 near floor. Bird screen is desirable.
27.9 TRANSFORMERS INDOORS: SELECTION-Subject to stringent NEC regula-tions. NEC Article 450
A. Considerations involved.
1. Oll insulated- fire hazardous. TO prevent fire, install in fire resistant vault (costly). Advantage- small size, low weight, low first cost,
low losses, long life, excellent electrical, low noise level, high overload capacity. Industrial use.
2. Less Flammable Liquid-Insulated transformers- insulated with liguid whose fire point is not less than 300 dC may be installed
without a vault. Generally, less expensive than nonflammable fluid insulated units
3. Nonflammable fluid filled units- advantages of oil filled but needs no vault unless high voltage. Require a sump or catch basin of
capacity for all of the contained liquid. High cost.
Porous paving encourages groundwater recharge rather than storm runoff. (a) Standard porous asphalt
4. Dry pavement
type units = majority of indoor installations, despite short as used
life, in Rockville,
higher losses,Maryland.
high(b) Subsurface
noise basin
level, allows required
greater weight, retention ponds
larger istothan the
serve as parking lots; this example is at the Morris Arboretum in Philadelphia. (Reprinted by
liquid. Advantage-ease of installation, choice of location. Noise ca from
permission be B.reduced-expensive.
Ferguson. 1998. IntroductionPlacement
to Stormwater. is advantage.
John Wiley and Sons. New York.)
4. Dry type units =majority of indoor installations, despite short life, higher losses, high noise level, greater weight, larger is than the
liquid. Advantage-ease of installation, choice of location. Noise can be reduced-expensive. Placement is advantage.
27.10 TRANSFORMER VAULTS- Fire rated enclosure, provide in case of transformer rupture or fire. However transformers are
tough, sturdy, long lived, etc., the most reliable elements of electrical systems. Locate where they can be ventllated. NEC Article
450.
27.11 SERVICE EQUIPMENT ARRANGEMENTS AND METERING- Metering is provided at the utility or facility voltage. Lef to the
owner. Meter must be available for inspection and ser-vice. High voltage- purchased by the owner. Low voltage purchased by the
utility. Low voltage
- higher rate to compensate electric company for the cost of providing and maintaining the step-down transformer and associates
equipment. Best for owner to purchase high voltage but owner not equipped to maintain high voltage equipment.
Single use-single meter. Furnished and installed by utility company.
Multiple use- banks of meter sockets.
Federal regulations forbid master metering in multiple dwelling-encourages energy loss. Service switch and meters are separately
mounted. Meters are always installed electrically ahead of the service switch so that they cannot be disconnected.
27.12 SERVICE SWITCH- Purpose is to disconnect all of the electric service in the building except the emergency equipment. In
fire-no hazard. Must be readily accessible. May be 1 to 6 properly rated switches.
7.13 SWITCHES-Traditional close and open electric circuit by physically moving 2 electrical conductors into contact with each other
to close circuit and physically separating to open. By hand, spring, motor
A. Solid state switches-no moving parts.
B. Electrical switch rated by current, voltage, poles and throw, fusibility & enclosure.
1. Current rating- amount of current that switch can carry continuously and interrupt safely.
2. If motor control switch- horsepower rated.
3. Voltage rating-voltage class. 260V, 600V, 5kV
4. In lighting and power circuits-general duty safety switch.
5. IF frequent interrupting, high fault switch and ease of maintenance- HD or heavy duty.
6. Poles and throws- see Fig 26.8. Unless noted- assume single throw.
7. Poles - 1-,2-,3-,4-,5-pole construction. ex 3P
can be fusible.
9. All switch must be in appropriate cabinet. Fig26.15
10. ex. switch description: HD, , 3P and SN, 200A/150AF(Fuse), 600V in NEMA 12 enclosure.

27.14,27.15, 27.16 DELETE

27.17 EQUIPMENT ENCLOSURES-
A. Outdoor use:
1. In Type 3R enclosure to protect against rain
2. In Type 3S enclosure to protect against wind driven rain and sleet.
3. In Type 4 enclosure protect against the above plus splashng and condensation
Type 12 and Type 1 are similar except gasketed type 12-applied to all dirty indoor
27.18 CIRCUITPROTECTIVE DEVICES

A. Fuses: Device consisting of a fusible link or wire of low melting temperature that when enclosed in an insulating fiber tube is
called a cartridge fuse and if it is in porcelain – plug fuse.

Fig. 20 Plug-type fuses are made in two physical types. (a) The nonrenewable type with a standard ( Edison) base screws directly into a standard socket. (b) Nonrenewable
NEC type S fuses have a smaller base than type (a) and therefore require an adapter to fit into a standard socket. The adapter is current-rated and nonremovable. This
prevents deliberate or accidental use of a type S fuse of incorrect rating. Type S is required in new construction where plug fuses are used. Both fuses shown are nonrenewable
and must be replaced after blowing. The type S fuse shown in (b) is a dual-element time-delay fuse. Cartridge fuses are available in a variety of designs. Illustrated are (c) the
nonrenewable, single-element type and (d) the nonrenewable, dual-element, time-delay type. Because fuses are inherently very-fast-acting devices, time delay must be built
into a fuse to prevent blowing on short-time overloads such as those caused by motor starting. A dual-element fuse as shown in (b) allows the heat generated by temporary
overloads to be dissipated in the larger center metal element, preventing fuse blowing. If the overload reaches dangerous proportions, the metal will melt, releasing the spring
and opening the circuit. The notched metal portions of the fuse element, at both ends of the dual center element, provide short-circuit protection. The time required to clear
(blow) a fuse is generally inversely proportional to the amount of current. In renewable-cartridge fuses, the spent (blown) element is replaceable, reusing the original outer
cartridge and blade connectors.
B. Circuit breaker: electromechanical device the performs the same protective function as a fuse and also acts as a switch.

Fig. 21 (a) Essential elements of a plug-in-type molded-case circuit breaker are shown in cutaway. Details vary with
breakers designed for specific applications. The unit shown is typical of breakers in the 50- to 100-A size. (Photo
courtesy of The Square D Company.) (b) Heavy-duty molded-case circuit breaker, 400-A frame, 2- to 4-pole, 240-
600 V. This circuit breaker is available with either a standard thermal-magnetic trip or an adjustable electronic trip
with ground fault protection. Among the accessories available are auxiliary contacts, shunt trip, undervoltage
release, and an electrical solenoid operator that permits remote control of the breaker. The unit is suitable for
individual or panel board mounting. A typical 3-pole unit measures 5½ in. W × 10 in. H × 4 in. D (140 × 255 × 100
mm) and weighs about 12 lb (5.5 kg). (Photo courtesy of Cutler-Hammer.)
27.19 SWITCHBOARDS AND SWITCHGEAR- Freestanding assemblies of switches, fuses and/or circuit breakers which normally provide
switching and feeder protection to a number of circuits connected to a main source. Main buswork of switchboard is equivalent to main header,
the switches to on/off valves, fuses to flow limiting devices and the feeders to subheaders connected to the main header. Modern are deadfront-
completed enclosed in metal structure. Push buttons and insulated handles in the front panel.
Drawout if circuit breakers have bayonet type contacts in moveable drawer.
No distinction between switchboard and switchgear. High voltage usually referred to as switChgear.
Molded case circuit breakers in a switchboard-building type switchboard. Space requirements must meet NEC requirements Article 110-16.
Basement location in well ventilated room for main metal clad switchgear. Design adequate lifting hooks, exits, hallways, hatches for entrance
and exit of equipment room. If smaller- wire screen enclosure plus DANGER-HIGH VOLTAGE sign. Outdoors- small house to enclose normal
indoor gear, utilize weatherproof outergear, switchgear built into its own house.

27.20 UNIT SUBSTATION(TRANSFORMER LOAD CENTERS) - Assembly of primary switch and fuse or breaker, step down transformer,
meters, controls, buswork, and secondary switchgear. Indoor or outdoor use. Supply of power from primary voltage line to large facility. Location
governed by transformer used. Indoor unit substations-dry air-filled transformers.

Fig. 28 Typical nominal switchgear space requirements.

Each room should have two doors when switchgear is
connected to high-capacity systems or operates at high
voltage. Switchgear is shown in plan view. For detailed
space requirements, see NEC Article 110.
Fig. 29 Approximate sizes and weights of a typical large
single-ended unit substation. Such a unit would supply a
building with a maximum demand of 750 kVA. The
incoming 13,800-V cables enter cubicle A and connect to
the primary switch and fuses. The load side of the fuses
connects to the transformer, which in turn connects to the
secondary switchgear. The main secondary switchgear
then feeds various switchboards and panelboards
distributed throughout the building.
27.21 PANELBOARDS – same function as switchboard, smaller scale. Accepts large block of power and distributes to smaller blocks. Main
buses, protective circuit breakers and fuses. Panelboard is final distribution point.
Panel component mounted on insulating board, in enclosed cabinet.
Described by type, bus arrangement, V, mounting.

Fig. 2 Cutaway of a typical lighting and appliance panel board.

Fig. 1 A wired panelboard is shown with the cover removed. This
Branch circuit-protective devices are normally arranged in two
panel is single-phase, 3-wire, meaning that it has two phase bars
vertical rows even in 3-phase panels. The circuit directory on the
and a neutral (note the three heavy feeder cables). Lighting and
inside of the panelboard door gives a brief description of the loads
appliance panels such as this are 4½-6 in. (115-150 mm) deep,
16-20 in. (400-500 mm) wide, and of sufficient height to connected to each branch circuit breaker.
accommodate the devices. The top device may be no higher than
78 in. (2 m) above the finished floor (AFF) and the bottom one no
lower than 18 in. (450 mm) AFF to meet NEC requirements.

27.22 PRINCIPAL OF ELECTRIC LOAD CONTROL

A. Key to energy conservation and electric demand is load control.
B. Control strategies were discussed in the last chapter.
C. Use miniaturized programmable control elements.
27.23 Intelligent Panelboards
A. Incorporate necessary load control and switching functions into the panelboard by use of the miniaturized programmable control elements.
The Internal central controller permits local programmable control of each panel circuit breaker individually.
27.24 ELECTRIC MOTORS- Supplied as adjunct to specified driven equipment-fans, blowers within the constraints of voltage and enclosure.
A. Direct Current Motors-Expensive- used only where the continuous fine speed control is required: electric drives
B. Alternating Current Motors- Polyphase induction, polyphase synchronous motors, single phase motors. Most are squirrel cage induction
machines.
C. Squirrel Cage Induction Motors-rotor consisted of a group of bars welded together into a cylindrical cage type shape. 4 NEMA designs:
TYPE B- standard design, high efficiency and power factor, normal torque, applicable to fans, blowers and pumps
2. Type C- high starting torque, fair efficiency and power factor. Compressors, convey-ors, starts under load.

Motor Nameplate:
1. Type-enclosure
2. Duty-Continuous or intermittent
3. Service Factor-permissible overload, generally 15%
4. kVA code-max. starting current per horsepower.
5. Frame-NEMA number motor's physical dimensions
6. Motor Voltage-208, 230/460 and 575V.
7. Motor nominal full load efficiency-ASHRAE Standard 90.1-1989

D. Electric Motor Energy Considerations-1/2 all power in US for electric motors.

Energy lost from:
1. Motor itself(motor efficiency)
2. Line losses caused by the motor's power factor(PF)- amount of d=reactive current that device requires. Lower power factor, higher reactive
current

27.25 MOTOR CONTROL STANDARDS

A. NEMA Standards- large, heavy duty for large range of motor sizes and characteristics: designed with split between motor and motor control
pack
B. IEC-International Electrotechnical Commission- develops standards for electrical equipment- smaller, lighter cheaper because closer
coordination between motor and controller.
27.24 ELECTRIC MOTORS- Supplied as adjunct to specified driven equipment-fans, blowers within the constraints of voltage and enclosure.

27.26 MOTOR CONTROL

A. Fundamentals
A-Cmotor control (D-C too complicated)- basically a contactor designed to handle the heavy inrush currents encountered in a-c motor starting.-
starts and stops motor and protects motor from overload.
Accomplished by combining sets of contacts for on/off with set of thermal overload elements in one unit.
New- motor controllers that provide soft starts- minimize the mechanical stresses caused by rapid application of acceleration torque, reduced in
size and weight, long life, + additional use of jogging and reversal
Fractional horsepower motors- manual switch.
Starters in various sizes. Most are contacts place the motor directly onto the line and the motor starts up immediately.
Compensator, reduced voltage starter.
Every motor is required by NEC to have a disconnecting means within sight of the controller.
Combination starter is starter + disconnect.
When starters are assembled for a group of motors, the motor starters, disconnect switch cages and indicating devices- combined into a single
large assembly called motor control center.
B. Motor Speed Control- needed for HVAC, Fluid piping and Industrial systems
Most practical as a variable-voltage, variable-frequency (VVVF) controller
27.27 MOTOR CONTROL EQUIPMENT-Required by NEC to have a disconnect for safety rea-sons. May use a combination starter- disconnect
+ starter combination
Every motor is required by NEC to have a disconnecting means within sight of the controller.
When starters are assembled for a group of motors, the motor starters, disconnect switchcages and indicating devices- combined into a single
large assembly called motor control center.
27.28 WIRING DEVICES- Receptacles All devices that are normally installed in wall outlets boxes, including receptacles, switches, dimmers and
pilot lights, attachment plugs called caps and wall plates.
Classified in descending order of quality (premium or specification grade), intermediate grade and standard or economy grade.- each company
may qualify these differently. NEMA or UL standards must be specified. Specification grade-industrial, good commercial. intermediate-
educational and good residential. standard-low cost building.
Grade of wiring should be consistent with quality of construction in entire building.
Hospital use wiring for heavy abuse, identified with a green dot on the device face and hospital grade UL.
Fig. 41 Motor control centers (MCC) of various constructions. (a) Conventional MCC construction with magnetic motor starters, manual local control, analog metering, and conventional
overload and protective equipment. (b) Back-to-back construction of conventional MCC adds only 5 in. (125 mm) to the basic 15-in. (380-mm) depth. (c) Units are 90 in. (2.3 m) high and
20 in. (500 mm) wide per section. Solid-state controllers can be installed in this unit, as well as in the MCC shown in (a), along with conventional magnetic contactors. (d) MCC that uses
solid state programmable controllers with heaterless overload protection. The unit also provides protection against phase loss, single phasing, and ground faults. Single side units in this
construction are 90 in. (2.3 m) H × 20 in. (500 mm) W × 16-20 in. (400-500 mm) D (depending upon starter size). Back-to-back construction is 21 in. (534 mm) D. (Photos courtesy of
Allen-Bradley [a], Siemens Furnas [b, c], and Cutler-Hammer [d].)The general term wiring devices includes all devices that are normally installed in wall outlet boxes, including
receptacles, switches, dimmers, fan controls, and so on. Attachment plugs, also called caps, and wall plates are also included in wiring devices.
27.29 WIRING DEVICES: RECEPTACLES- Identified by number of poles and wires, and whether or not device is designed for connection of a
separate grounding wire. Grounding pole is not counted in number of poles, but is counted in wires
Grounding pole connected to the green ground wire where this is run or to the conduit system where a ground wire is not run.
Equipment grounding pole is not to be confused with equipment ground (neutral) nor should the wiring be interchanged.
Receptacles must be of grounding type where installed on standard 15 or 20 A branch circuits. Polarize so attachment plugs are not
interchangeable on receptacles connected to different voltages, frequencies or current type (a-c or d-c) on same premises.
Receptacles are from 10 to 400A, 2 to 4 poles, 126 to 600V, locked, explosion proof. Also specific usages-range. All receptacles other than
normal 15/20 A, 3 wire, parallel slot type should be specified with the required number of matching caps (plugs).
Receptacles are mounted vertically, 12-18 in from floor unless tables against wall(labs) where mounting height is 42 inch.

27.30 WIRING DEVICES: SWITCHES -Switches up to 30A that can be outlet mounted. Better construction in A-c than a-c/d-c. A-c rating of
15,20,30 A at 120 or 120/277V, single pole, 2 pole, 3 way, 4 way, momentary-contact 2 circuit, maintained SPDT and SPST.
Operating handles are toggle type, key, push, touch, rocker, rotary and tap plate types. Mercury and a-c quiet types-noiseless. Others are not.
Solid state rectifier -give high/off/low control for incandescent lamps.
High security areas, tumbler locked controlled unit.
Timed out loads such as bathroom heaters and ventilating and-spring would timer.
Programmable switch-minute fits in outlet box in lieu of ordinary switch.

27.31 WIRING DEVICES: SPECIALTIES-Pilot lights, fan controls, small motor controls, lighting dimmer.

27.32 LOW VOLTAGE SWITCHING- Wired directly into the load circuit and operate at line voltage and full current. Uses light duty, low voltage
(24V) switches to control line relays, which in turn do the actual circuit switching. Can be local, remote, master or override by local control
devices.
Advantages of local control devices such as occupancy sensors and central control or override by timers, etc.-
1. Flexibility of control location.
2. individual load override by local control devices (photocells, occupancy sensor)
3. Group load override by central control devices such as timers, daylight controllers, energy management systems.
4. Low cost of low voltage, low current wiring.
5. Inherent system flexibility and simplification of alterations
6. Monitoring of the status of individual loads at a centralized control panel via use of loads relay with auxiliary contacts

27.33 WIRELESS SWITCHING AND CONTROL- Facilities for their accommodation must be supplied if used in a facility
27.34 POWER LINE CARRIER SYSTEMS- Flexible programmable load switching system, are high cost, especially in energy management
system. As a result- a system of conductors was developed, thus illuminating the need of dedicated control wiring. This is called a power line
carrier (PLC).
A. System operates by injecting into power wiring a services of low voltage high frequency binary coded control signals which then disperse over
the entire power network.
Tuned receiver reacts. Receivers are normally designed to fit into an ordinary wiring device box.
1. Wall switch module, contains coded receiver and fully rated relay.
2. A wall receptacle module which contains a 20A receptacle along with a receiver and relay
3. Switching module, which can be connected to activate contactors, small motors and the like.
PLC Requires high quality power wiring installation to operate properly. Problem in PLC in-stallation-radio noise from faulty power equipment
and by improperly shielded or grounded electronic equipment.

27.35 POWER CONDITIONING-

A. Process of converting utility-supplied electrical power, which is frequently characterized by transients, spikes, radio-frequency noise and
voltage fluctuation, to a pure, accurately noise, and voltage fluctuation, to a pure, accurately voltage regulated sinusoidal waveform, referred to
as computer grade power. Required in data processing and telecommunications which are sensitive to voltage fluctuations. In data processing-
radio noise can cause data error.

Power conditioners are not the same as UPS-uninterrupted power supplies.

B. Source of Disturbance- Utility equipment cannot reacte to short time disturbances, plus noise cannot be controlled. Three types of impurities
on the line:
1. Voltage variations-short time high current drain, deliberate voltage reductions, load switching of EMS systems, excessive voltage drop from
heavy loading, current leakage
2. Electrical noise- low amplitude higher frequency voltage when if superimposed on power line result in distorted waveform. Sources- lighting
dimmers, sold state motor controls, branch circuits switches and relays
3. Transients- large short duration voltage variations-surges or spikes. Source-lightning strikes to overhead lines, utility switching of high voltage
lines, transformers, capacitor banks and generators.
 Fig. 69 Typical installation diagram of a radiator-cooled diesel engine-
generator set. The set should be oriented so that the hot radiator
cooling air vented through an outside wall flows in the same direction
as prevailing winds. A solid masonry wind and noise barrier not less
than 6 ft (1.8 m) from the radiator air outlet is recommended, as well
as an elevated exhaust pipe outlet. (Illustration courtesy of Onan
Corp.)

27.40 SYSTEM INSPECTION- Inspected at least twice by local authorities-after raceways installed and before the wiring and closing in of walls
installed and before the wiring and closing in of walls and after entire job is complete.