CHAPTER 12 ACTIVE CLIMATE CONTROL

12.1 REVIEW OF THE NEED FOR MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT

Building influences comfort through it's surface temperature and air temperature.
The comfort determinants of air motion, RH and air quality often require user response.
12.2 HEATING VENTILATING AND AIR CONDITIONING (HVAC): TYPICAL DESIGN PRO-CESSES- 3 DESIGN PHASES
Preliminary Design Phase- comfort and climate characteristics:
1.Activity comfort needs are listed.
2.Activity schedule is listed
3.Sit energy resources are analyzed
4.Climate design strategies are listed
5.Building form alternatives are considered
6.Combinations of passive and act systems are considered
7.One or several alternatives are sized by rule of thumb
Use engineers and landscape architect.
Use team approach.
Design Development Phase: The consulting engineer is furnished with the latest set of drawings and the program. Architect or
mechanical engineer then-
1. Establish design conditions
a, By activity, list the range of acceptable air and surface temp, air motions, relative hu-/ milities, lighting levels, background noise
level.
b. Establish schedule of operations
2. Determine the HVAC zones and consider:
a. Activities
b. Schedule
c. orientation
d. internal heat gains
3. Estimate thermal loads on each zones
a. For worst winter conditions
b. For worst summer conditions
c. For the average condition or conditions that represent the greatest majority of the buildings operating hours.
d. Frequently as estimate of annual energy consumption is made.
4.Select HVAC system- often use more than one system
5.Identify HVAC component and their location
a. Mechanical rooms
b. Distribution Trees-vertical chases, horizontal runs
c. Typical in space components, such as under window fan coil units, air grilles and so
Sun Charts. Illustrations (a) through (g) describe
the development of the charts shown for three
latitudes that cross the united states, map (h).
(From Edward Mazria and David Winitsky. Solar
Guide and Calculator, Center for Environmental
Research. University of Oregon. 1976) Charts (i)
through (k) include the approximate percentage
of clear day insolation for south-facing windows,
for each of the 6 maximum hours of sun each
month.
FIG. 32 Air controls in ducts. (a) Air adjustment
by opposed blade dampers. (b) Air adjustment
by a splitter damper. (c) Conventional turns in
ducts. (d) Right-angle turns with turning vanes-a
more compact method.
• FIG. 35 The compressive refrigeration cycle (a) used in an exterior air-cooled heat-
rejection unit and an interior cooling coil suitable for placement in a central
airstream. (b) Cooling/heating air-handling unit. Cutaway view shows an upflow air
pattern.
• At the lower left is the return air intake and a filter; adjacent are the fan and motor.
Above these components are the gas burning elements. At the top is the direct-
expansion cooling coil.
FIG. 36 Compact horizontal flow combinations
for forced-air heating and cooling. The small
pipe between the two refrigerant pipes of the
cooling unit is a water drain that carries away
the condensed moisture from the recirculated
and outdoor air. The heating unit requires gas
and flue or exhaust gas connections.
Refrigerant pipes connect to the outdoor
compressor-condenser unit.
• FIG. 37 Combination hydronic and forced-
air system (a) using a perimeter hot water
loop in the floor slab and an overhead air
supply. (b) Close-up of the heating and
cooling components.
• The boiler heats both the slab perimeter
and the coils in the airstream.
• FIG. 38 Heat pump applications of the compressive refrigeration cycle. The simple air-air heat pump provides cooled air
(a) or heated air (b). Teamed with a solar collector and water storage tank (c), the heat pump can yield usefully warm
temperatures in the airstream while increasing the collector efficiency by lowering the storage tank temperature.

• In a single-package (also called unitary) system (FIG. 39a), only one piece of equipment is involved.
• A single-package air-air heat pump moves heat between an outdoor air stream and an indoor air stream; although kept
separate, both streams pass through a single outdoor unit. A system with both outside and inside components is called
a split sys tem (FIG. 39b). A split-system air-air heat pump moves heat via a refrigerant loop between the out door unit
(which also contains the compressor), through which outdoor air passes, and the indoor unit (which usually contains
backup heating coils) for the treatment and circulation of indoor air.
• Single-package heat pumps are commonly located on roofs, where they have unlimited access to outdoor air, and
where their noise is less likely to annoy-provided they are sufficiently isolated from the building's structure. This
approach is shown in the day-lighted, passively solar-heated Mount Airy, North Carolina, library (FIG. 40). This 14,000-
ft^2 (1300-m^2) building also has a solar preheating sys tem for its hot water. The five air-air heat pumps utilize
economizer cycles (up to 100% outside air when temperatures are favorable). The average annual building energy
consumption has been monitored at about 17,000 Btu/ft^2 (53,635 W/ m^2)--approximately one-third of nearby similar
function buildings.
• Individual air-air heat pump units are especially common in building types with all-perimeter spaces with varying
orientations and numerous thermal zones. Motels are a prime example. In FIG. 41, separate air-air heat pumps serve
each motel room; at best, their constant noise helps mask the intermittent sounds from the adjacent parking
lot/circulation space. Opportunities for heat exchange between these heat pumps are scarce; if a central water loop
were substituted for outdoor air as the heat source/sink, energy costs would go down, although the first cost would rise.
• Split systems are popular because the noise of the compressor and the outdoor air fan are removed from the interior,
and the size of the indoor unit can be quite small. This indoor element is often mounted either high on the wall or on the
ceiling. Such an indoor unit is available with automatically changing louvers; when it is in the cooling mode, it delivers
cool air along the ceiling, from where it sinks to the level of occupancy; cold air blowing directly on people is avoided. In
the heating mode, the louvers shift to direct hot air steeply downward. The greater the distance between the indoor and
outdoor units, the greater the strain on the refrigerant loop.
• Heat pumps have a high initial cost, and they have in the past shown a relatively high frequency of compressor failure.
Noise from the compressor and the outdoor air fan may affect site planning, especially for residences.
• One of the primary attractions of the heat pump is that in its heating mode it can deliver more energy than it consumes
(electrically). Although energy (usually electricity) is required to run the cycle, the pump draws "free" heat from a source
such as out door air. The total heat delivered to the building is more than the heat (electricity) required to run the cycle.
The measure of this heat advantage is called the coefficient of performance (COP), defined as COP = heat delivered to
space/necessary work input. In typical space-heating applications, a seasonal COP of 2 or more is common in mild-
winter areas. Because the COP changes with outdoor conditions and indoor load, a seasonal energy efficiency ratio
(SEER) rating system has been established.
• SEER measures the number of Btu/h removed for each watt of energy input, averaged over the cooling season. The
higher the SEER, the more efficient the heat pump's seasonal performance. SEER ranges are roughly as low as 5 and
as high as 15. The heating cycle of the heat pump has a similar rating sys tem, called the heating seasonal
performance factor (HSPF).
 • FIG. 39 The package unit (a) and the split system (b) are popular applications of the air-
air heat pump. The package unit and the outdoor unit of the split system are also
typically placed outside walls, as well as on roofs, as shown here.
• As might be expected from a device that draws heat from winter outdoor air, there are
limitations to its heating performance. As outdoor temperatures approach 32ºF (0ºC),
the COP drops and the outdoor coil tends to ice over. Built-in electric resistance coils
must then be used; this, of course, ends the efficiency advantage that made the heat
pump attractive. See FIG. 42 for a demonstration of falling performance with falling
temperatures. Because of this characteristic, air-air heat pumps are less frequently
used in cold-winter climates. They also generally make questionable backup choices for
passively solar-heated buildings in colder climates, because backup sources are
typically needed only in the coldest weather.

D. Ground Source Heat Pumps:

Geothermal heat pumps- ground air pumps- + triple water furnace yield space heating, cooling and domestic hot water. 4 modes of
operation- standard space cooling, space heating, simultaneous space cooling and water heating, water heating only. Water furnace
is part of the closed loop earth coupled heat pump.
E. Water Source Heat Pumps:
Supplementary heat source in cold weather and heat rejecter in warm weather, maintain useable water temperatures within the loop.
9.9 PSYCHROMETRICS AND REFRIGERATION
Procedure to size cooling equipment if more complicated than heating because latent and sensible heat must be considered.
 • FIG. 39 The package unit (a) and the split system (b) are popular applications of the air-
air heat pump. The package unit and the outdoor unit of the split system are also
typically placed outside walls, as well as on roofs, as shown here.
• As might be expected from a device that draws heat from winter outdoor air, there are
limitations to its heating performance. As outdoor temperatures approach 32ºF (0ºC),
the COP drops and the outdoor coil tends to ice over. Built-in electric resistance coils
must then be used; this, of course, ends the efficiency advantage that made the heat
pump attractive. See FIG. 42 for a demonstration of falling performance with falling
temperatures. Because of this characteristic, air-air heat pumps are less frequently
used in cold-winter climates. They also generally make questionable backup choices for
passively solar-heated buildings in colder climates, because backup sources are
typically needed only in the coldest weather.

D. Ground Source Heat Pumps:

Geothermal heat pumps- ground air pumps- + triple water furnace yield space heating, cooling and domestic hot water. 4 modes of
operation- standard space cooling, space heating, simultaneous space cooling and water heating, water heating only. Water furnace
is part of the closed loop earth coupled heat pump.
E. Water Source Heat Pumps:
Supplementary heat source in cold weather and heat rejecter in warm weather, maintain useable water temperatures within the loop.
9.9 PSYCHROMETRICS AND REFRIGERATION
Procedure to size cooling equipment if more complicated than heating because latent and sensible heat must be considered.
CHAPTER 10 LARGE BUILDING HVAC SYSTEMS
10.1 HVAC AND BUILDING ORGANIZATION- Internal broad zoning systems.
A. Zoning= shows minimum number of units
B. System Anatomy-3 tasks are done by production components, require distribution and delivery, distribution and delivery
components, intake and exhaust for each task

• The minimum number of thermal zones for a large, conventionally designed, multi-
purpose building.
C. Central vs local systems- require 2 or several large mechanical spaces, sizea-ble distribution trees and complex control systems.
Can easily control noise and heat since machinery in few locations. Easily maintained. Air quality easily con-trolled. Longer
equipment life. Drawback: difference in zones back of central system Is as difference in zone scheduling. Local Systems increased
use as scheduling difference multiply. Function or placement in building important.
C. Central vs local systems- require 2 or several large mechanical spaces, sizea-ble distribution trees and complex control systems.
Can easily control noise and heat since machinery in few locations. Easily maintained. Air quality easily con-trolled. Longer
equipment life. Drawback: difference in zones back of central system Is as difference in zone scheduling. Local Systems increased
use as scheduling difference multiply. Function or placement in building important.
D. Uniformity versus Diversity-
Uniformity – rapidity of design and construction- often lower cost
Diversity – enhances comfort of office users

• Fig. 2 Fan rooms (F) can either be combined with or separated from boiler/chiller "equipment"
rooms (*). (a) Common location for a central combined equipment room. (b) Increasingly
common arrangement of a small fan room on each floor, with an equipment room in the
basement. (c) An intermediate floor may be able to provide space for a central fan room, while
the heavier and noisier equipment remains in the basement. (d) With a top-floor central fan
room, the equipment may be located either on the roof or in a mechanical penthouse, or may
remain in the basement.
• (d) Uniformity versus Diversity
• How similar should the interior environments of buildings be? This question encompasses not
only thermal experiences, but visual and acoustical ones as well.
• The advantages of uniformity are most evident in a rapidity of design and construction that,
through mass production and speed, often brings lower first costs. Uniformity of ceiling
heights, light fixture placement, grille locations, and so on promotes flexibility in office
arrangements that can extend a building's usable life span. However, there are at least four
types of offices, which may need to be interchangeable within such "flexible" space.
• The typical enclosed office has the privacy of four walls and a door. The bullpen office has
repeated, identical workstations, with low dividers at about the height of the desk surface. The
uniform open plan office resembles the bullpen, but with higher divider partitions for added
privacy. The free-form open plan office has some individually designed workstations with
divider partitions of varying heights (sometimes reflecting the varying status of workers). In
the bullpen and uniform open plan office, the resulting uniformity is not always attractive to
users, and diversity is often encouraged at a more personal level-with office furnishings, for
example. A more thorough approach to diversity can provide stimulus to the user who spends
many hours away from the variability of the exterior climate.
• If offices must be uniform in ceiling lighting, air handling, and size, the corridors that connect
them and the lounges or other supporting service spaces can deliberately be made different.
Diversity requires a complete and detailed design of places; it gives the builder a more
complex and interesting task; and it can provide orientation and interest to the users. The
attractiveness of diversity is evident in most collections of retail shops, in which light and
sound-and sometimes heat and aroma-are used to distinguish one shop from the next.
• Diversity in the thermal conditions to be maintained, such as warmer offices and cooler
circulation spaces in the winter, can be used to enhance the comfort of the office users.
Designers have long recognized that a space can be made to seem brighter and higher if it is
preceded by a dark, low transition space. Thermal comfort impressions can be manipulated
similarly. Less than comfort able conditions in circulation spaces or other less critical zones
not only make the critical spaces seem more comfortable by contrast, but also save
significant amounts of energy over the life of a building. Furthermore, such conditions can
make passive strategies more attractive.
• A large-scale demonstration of diversity in thermal zones is shown in Fig. 3. Passive solar
heating can make a significant contribution, even through a shallow-sloped, single-glazed
cover in cloudy Glasgow, Scotland, largely because the mall area and leisure areas are
allowed a much wider thermal range than would be permitted in stores and offices. The
overcast skies are quite suitable for daylight, and the addition of summer sunshading makes
natural ventilation (through the stack effect, assisted by fans) possible during the cool
summers. U.S. Pacific Northwest climate conditions are similar.
E. Comparing Systems and Zones-
Consider match between the zones’ characteristics and of various systems: zones placement, loads, comfort determination, space
available and life-cycle cost of the system alternatives

• Fig. 4 Zone placement and building form are related to heating, cooling, and ventilating
tasks; some applications take on typical building forms. ( University of Oregon.)
• Zone placement will sometimes preclude local systems, which depend on easy access
to outdoor air both for fresh air and for a heat source or sink.
• Local systems for interior (away-from-skin) zones are awkward. Relationships between
zone placement and building forms are shown in Fig. 4.
• The thermal loads on each zone determine the extent to which heating or cooling is the
dominant problem-which, in turn, can influence the choice of system. A zone with little
cooling load and low moisture production may be well served by a simple system of
fresh air plus heating, with no humidity control. Zones that require cooling will usually
also require more complete control of air motion and relative humidity. Although it is
risky to generalize about which comfort determinants are most important (given the
differences between activities and between individuals), it can generally be assumed
that comfort and thermal tasks are related.
• Thus, the choice of systems can be based partly on whether the system provides good
control of the more important comfort determinants.
E. Comparing Systems and Zones-
Consider match between the zones’ characteristics and of various systems: zones placement, loads, comfort determination, space
available and life-cycle cost of the system alternatives

• Fig. 4 Zone placement and building form are related to heating, cooling, and ventilating
tasks; some applications take on typical building forms. ( University of Oregon.)
• Zone placement will sometimes preclude local systems, which depend on easy access
to outdoor air both for fresh air and for a heat source or sink.
• Local systems for interior (away-from-skin) zones are awkward. Relationships between
zone placement and building forms are shown in Fig. 4.
• The thermal loads on each zone determine the extent to which heating or cooling is the
dominant problem-which, in turn, can influence the choice of system. A zone with little
cooling load and low moisture production may be well served by a simple system of
fresh air plus heating, with no humidity control. Zones that require cooling will usually
also require more complete control of air motion and relative humidity. Although it is
risky to generalize about which comfort determinants are most important (given the
differences between activities and between individuals), it can generally be assumed
that comfort and thermal tasks are related.
• Thus, the choice of systems can be based partly on whether the system provides good
control of the more important comfort determinants.
F. Distribution Trees-
Consider match between the zones’ characteristics and of various systems: zones placement, loads, comfort determination, space
available and life-cycle cost of the system alternatives

• Fig. 5 Matrix of distribution trees.

G. Central Equipment Location- Equipment may be at basement level, roof, intermediate level or central level.
H. Concealment and Exposure- Advantage of concealment- less noisy, fewer surfaces to clean, less care in construction tasks, more
control over interior celling and wall surfaces.
I. Mechanical-Structural Integration or Separation- May wrap mechanical systems in a structural envelope. Because of differing life
spans of the system- probably will not appeal to many designers in the future.
J. Distribution Tree Placement Options- See Summary on Figure 10.9 Placement option affect floor space, influencing the flexibility
of spatial layout and the availability of usable (or rentable) floor space.

• Fig. 9 Distribution tree placement options, both vertical (with impact on the plan) and
horizontal (with impact on the section). (From class notes developed by G. Z. Brown,
University of Oregon.)
• (j) Distribution Tree Placement Options
• These options are summarized in Fig. 9. Vertical placement options are important
because they affect floor space, influencing the flexibility of spatial layout and the
availability of usable (or rentable) floor space. Horizontal placement options affect
ceiling height-a particular issue in daylighting design and sometimes a critical factor
when overall height limits are imposed yet maximum usable floor space is desired. (In
Washington, DC, for instance, no building can rise higher than the Capitol.) Both vertical
and horizontal distribution at the edges can have a dramatic impact on building
appearance.
• The history of distribution trees and high-rise buildings is one of trends and
countertrends. Initially, multistory buildings relied upon daylight and cross-ventilation, so
a thin, relatively high-ceiling plan with much perimeter was favored (refer to Fig. 3.33).
The heat gain and loss was all at the perimeter, so perimeter distribution trees (carrying
only steam or heated water, and of quite small diameter) were generally used. As
electric lighting and thus the need for air conditioning increased, so did the thickness of
floor plans; large central internal areas needed a lot of forced, cooled air.
• Central boilers, chillers, and fan rooms were the norm. Thus, bulky air distribution trees
appeared.
• At about the same time, the glass curtain wall and its slick, two-dimensional look of
modernity became fashionable. The air distribution trees were so visually intrusive on
the façades that they were pushed to the core, where cooling needs were relatively
steady. However, the thin glass perimeter experienced extreme needs for both heating
and cooling; getting from vertical trees at the core to the perimeter required larger
cavities above suspended ceilings. This pushed the ceiling in the offices down to keep
floor-to-floor distances economical. Vast office areas resulted that were visually dull,
low-ceilinged, and without daylight.
• Now, countertrends include decentralized air handling, with small fan rooms on each
floor.
• Vertical air distribution trees are shrinking, horizontal ones becoming more common. At
the same time, daylighting is pushing office ceilings higher; so is a preference for
indirect lighting and its compatibility with computer screen visual comfort.
• Night cooling utilizing thermal mass is encouraging the exposure of concrete structure
and favoring raised-floor air supply/ventilation systems.
• Fig. 11 The International Building, San Francisco. Anshen and Allen, architects;
Eagelson, Engineers (Charles Krieger, E.E.), mechanical designers. (a) Photo of
one of the four corner main duct enclosures. (b) Tenth-floor plan. Column bay
spacing is 24 ft, 6 in. (7.5 m), with a 16-ft (4.9-m) cantilever on all four façades.
The major supply ducts (both hot and cold) to all 21 floors are located in two
opposite corners. Each of these supply distribution trees serves two adjacent
sides of perimeter offices. The conditioned air is supplied from a third-floor
mechanical space. In the opposite two corners, return air from the upper 11 floors
is collected and taken down to the mechanical space. The remainder of the return
air is taken down through the core.
10.2 HEATING, VENTILATING, AIR CONDITIONING (HVAC) SYSTEM TYPES
Many thermal zones. Hundreds of HVAC variations have been devised.
Classify by media used to transfer heat.
1.Direct refrigerant systems
2.All air systems
3.Air and water systems
4.All water systems.
In 2,3 and 4 heating/cooling production equipment typically is located centrally, far from thermal zone it services. Distribution tree
size and placement important. In direct- machine is located adjacent to the zone it services.
A.Direct refrigerant systems- Eliminate the distribution trees, rely on heating/cooling device adjacent to or within the space to be
served. Most are air-air. In single package air- air heat pump. Both in and out through single outdoor unit. If both inside and outside
components- split system.
B.All Air Systems- Air is only heat transfer media used between the mechanical room (central station) and the zones it serves. Large
distribution trees. For comfort these are the best systems.
1)Single Zone System- small building 1 thermostat
2)Single-duct Variable Volume (VAV) System- required less building volume for distribution and the variations of air volume flow rate
(rather than air temp) save energy relative to the single duct with reheat. automatic volume controls(zone thermostat)
within air terminal diffuser (usually in ceiling).
3)Fan Powers VAV System- Individual units to heat when main supply system is cooling
4)Multizone Systems- individual centrally conditioned airstream, large distribution tree. Usually in medium size building.
6)Single Duct with Reheat- smallest distribution tree(along with VAV)- the only object added top the duct is a small reheat coil. All
zones reheat air as needed. For most large buildings in US the central airstream must be cooled most of the time. Big energy
wastage.
7)Duct Duct, Constant-Volume Systems. 2 distribution trees required. Usually, air from the 2 streams is mixed to order. Expensive to
install.
Fig. 12 (a-f) Schematic diagrams of all-air HVAC systems. An underfloor air supply is shown here to simplify the diagram, but a
ceiling supply is much more common.
Fig. 12.101-12.105 (10.12)
Fig. 12.101-12.105 (10.12)
C. Air and Water Systems- most heating and cooling of each zone via water distribution tree, smaller than needed for air. Exhaust air
may be used for heat recovery. If either heating and cooling 2 pipe system. If simultaneous heating and cooling- 3 or 4 pipe system
or heat pump used.
1)Induction Systems- below windows throughout the US. High velocity (high pres-sure), constant volume fresh air supply brought to
each terminal where it is forced through an opening in such a way the air in the room is induce to join the incoming jet of air. Then air
passes over finned tubes for heating or cooling.
2)Fan-Coil with supplementary air. Moves the room air as it provides wither heating or cooling. Fan mover heat or cool air across
coil.
3)Radiant Panels with Supplementary Air- Wither ceiling or wall panels contain heated or cooled water, to provide a large surface for
• Fig. 13 (a-c) Schematic diagrams of air and water
radiant heat exchange. HVAC systems. An underfloor air supply is shown
here to simplify the diagram, but a ceiling supply
is more common. In (b) the supplementary air is
often delivered directly to the fan-coil unit.
• Dual-Duct, Constant-Volume Systems. The dual-
(or double-) duct system requires two complete
distribution trees (Fig. 12d); at the height of
summer the cooling airstream does all the work,
whereas in the coldest winter conditions the
heating airstream carries the load. Most of the
time, air from these two streams is mixed to order
at each zone's air terminals. Because both
temperature and volume can be controlled, this
system offers better comfort under reduced load
conditions (for example, an only partially occupied
room) than does the single-duct VAV system.
However, it is much more expensive to install,
consumes much building volume for the two
distribution trees, and usually consumes more
energy than the single-duct VAV system that has
largely replaced it.
• (c) Air and Water Systems
• Several variations on air and water systems are
shown in Fig. 13. Most of the heating and cooling
of each zone is accomplished via the water
distribution tree, which is much thinner than the
tree needed by air. For air quality-filtering,
humidity, freshness-a small, centrally conditioned
airstream, equal to the total fresh air required, is
pro vided. Thus, several distribution trees are
involved, yet the total space they require is almost
always less than that required by all-air systems.
• Exhaust air may be gathered in a return air duct
system, making heat recovery possible. Or (as a
cheaper alternative) air can be exhausted locally
to avoid the construction of yet another
distribution tree. If the water distribution provides
either heating or cooling only, it is called a two-
pipe system (shown throughout Fig. 13). If it
provides simultaneous heating and cooling, it is a
four-pipe system.
D. ALL WATER SYSTEMS-these systems only heat or cool- do not deal with air quality.
Fan coil terminal so air motion occurs along with heating and cooling.
1)Two pipe water distribution system- either heating or cooling- one pipe for supply.
one for return.
2)Four pipe systems-quick changeover heating and cooling, utilizing 2 supplv and 2 return pipes.
3)Water loop Heat Pump- variation of 2 pipe. Heat pumps draw heat from loop or discharge heat to it. Closely related to refrigerant
system.
E. EQUIPMENT SPACE ALLOCATIONS - these systems only heat or cool- do not deal with air quality.