2.1.

1 STATES OF MATTER
Solid
• Solid:
• Solid has definite shape and volume
• Particles are closely packed and vibrates in fixed positions
• Solids are generally incompressible, meaning they do not significantly change
in volume when subjected to pressure.
Liquid
• Liquid:
• Liquids have definite volume
• Takes the shape of the container
• They are compressible
• Particles are further apart than in solid and particles can slide pass over each
other.
Gas
• Gas
• Gas has not definite shape, volume or ordered structure
• Gases take the shape of the container
• Particles are much further apart from each other and can move about freely
• They are easily compressible
 2.1.2 PARTICLE MODEL
The particle model is a fundamental concept in science that explains the behaviour of matter in its different states (solid, liquid, and
gas).
KEY ASPECTS OF THE PARTICLE MODEL ARE:
• Intermolecular Forces:
• Particles in matter are held together by intermolecular forces, which vary in strength depending
on the state of matter.
• In solids, the intermolecular forces are strong, holding the particles in a fixed, ordered
arrangement.
• In liquids, the intermolecular forces are weaker, allowing the particles to move past each
other.
• In gases, the intermolecular forces are very weak, allowing the particles to move freely and
independently.
• Particle Motion and Kinetic Energy:
• Particles in matter have varying degrees of kinetic energy, which determines their motion and
arrangement.
• In solids, particles have the lowest kinetic energy and vibrate around fixed positions.
• In liquids, particles have higher kinetic energy, allowing them to slide past each other.
• In gases, particles have the highest kinetic energy, allowing them to move freely and
independently.
Changes of State
• The transitions between the different form of states, known as phase changes.
• It occurs when the energy (usually in the form of heat) added to or removed from
the system is sufficient to overcome the intermolecular forces and allow the
particles to rearrange into a different state of matter.
• Solid  Liquid : Melting

• Liquid  Gas: Boiling [Fixed Temperature]

• Liquid Gas : Evaporation [Below Boiling Point/Room Temperature]

• Gas  Liquid: Condensation

• Liquid  Solid: Freezing / Solidification

• Solid Gas: Sublimation

Describe how solid/liquid turns in liquid/gas

• As temperature increases the average kinetic energy of the particles

increases .
• The particles moves or vibrate more vigorously due to higher energy.
• At a certain temperature the average kinetic energy is sufficient
enough to break the intermolecular force of attraction between the
particles.
• At this point the state changes from solid to liquid / liquid to gas
What is Absolute Zero Temperature?
• Absolute zero is defined as the temperature at which the particles
have the lowest possible kinetic energy.
• It is the point at which the thermal motion of particles is minimized,
and they are at their lowest energy state.
• The accepted value for absolute zero is 0 Kelvin (0 K), which is
equivalent to -273 degrees Celsius (°C)
• T= 273+ Ө
Force and Gas Pressure
According to the particle model, gases exert pressure due to the constant random motion
and collisions of the gas particles (atoms or molecules) with the walls of the container.
• In a gas, the particles are widely spaced and have a high average kinetic energy, allowing them to
move freely and randomly.
• These gas particles are in constant random motion, colliding with each other and the walls of the
container.
• As the gas particles collide with the walls of the container, they exert a force on the walls (at right
angle.)
• The force exerted by the particles on the walls is what we perceive as the pressure of the gas.
• When a gas particle collides with the wall, it undergoes a change in momentum, as its direction of
motion is altered.
• According to Newton's second law of motion, the change in momentum of the particle results in a
force being exerted on the wall.
• The total force exerted by all the gas particles on the walls of the container is the gas pressure.
Force and Gas Pressure
Pressure Distribution:
- The gas pressure is exerted equally in all directions within the container, as the particles
collide with the walls in random directions.
- This uniform distribution of pressure is a characteristic of gases.

Factors Affecting Gas Pressure:

- The gas pressure is directly proportional to the number of particles (the amount of gas) in
the container and the average kinetic energy (temperature) of the particles.
- Increasing the number of particles (by increasing the amount of gas) or the average
kinetic energy of the particles (by increasing the temperature) will result in an increase in
the gas pressure.

In summary, the particle model explains gas pressure as the result of the constant random
motion and collisions of gas particles with the walls of the container. The more particles and
the higher their kinetic energy, the greater the gas pressure exerted on the walls.
Explain qualitatively, in terms of particles, the relationship between:

(a) pressure and temperature at constant

volume
(b) volume and temperature at constant
pressure
(c) pressure and volume at constant
temperature
Pressure And Temperature At Constant Volume
• As temperature is increased the average speed/ kinetic energy of the
particles also increases.
• The particles moves faster and hit the surface with more force, as a
result collision or change in momentum of particles per second
increases and hence the pressure of the gas increases.
• Thus if the volume of fixed mass remains constant : A Rise In
Temperature Will Cause Pressure To Increase.
 Volume And Temperature At Constant Pressure

• At constant pressure, if the temperature of the gas increases, the kinetic

energy of the gas particles increases. The particles move faster and
collide with the container walls more frequently and with greater force.
• To maintain the same pressure when the particles have higher kinetic
energy, the volume of the container must increase. This gives the
particles more space to move around in.
• As the volume increases, the average distance between the particles also
increases. This causes the rate of collisions between the particles and the
container walls to decrease.
• The decrease in the collision rate due to the increased volume
counterbalances or "balances" the increase in collision rate caused by
the higher kinetic energy of the particles
 Pressure And Volume At Constant Temperature

• At a constant temperature, the kinetic energy of the gas particles remains

constant. The particles collide with the container walls with the same average
force and frequency.
• As the pressure of the gas is increased the volume of the gas decreases at
constant temperature. This can be explained in terms of particle:
• The pressure of the gas is increased but the average kinetic energy i.e.
temperature of the gas is kept constant. Which means the pressure will increase
without increasing the average kinetic energy or temperature of the gas particles.
And this can be done if the volume is reduced in a way so that the no. of
collisions increases within the container. When the volume decreases, the gas
particles have less space to move around in. The average distance between the
particles decreases and frequency of collisions increases. The increased
frequency of collisions with the walls results in a greater force exerted by the
particles on the walls. Hence if pressure increases volume decreases at a
constant temperature and vice versa