Particle Theory of Matter

Particle Theory of Matter

• Matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms or molecules.
• These particles are always in constant motion, moving randomly in
different directions.
• The particles are attracted to each other or held together by attractive
forces (intermolecular force of attraction).
• The motion and arrangement of these particles determine the state of
matter (solid, liquid, or gas)
Solid
• Solid:
• Solid has definite shape and volume
• Particles are closely packed and vibrates in fixed positions
• Solids are generally incompressible, meaning they do not significantly change
in volume when subjected to pressure.
Liquid
• Liquid:
• Liquids have definite volume
• Takes the shape of the container
• They are compressible
• Particles are further apart than in solid and particles can slide pass over each
other.
Gas
• Gas
• Gas has not definite shape, volume or ordered structure
• Gases take the shape of the container
• Particles are much further apart from each other and can move about freely
• They are easily compressible
 2.1.2 PARTICLE MODEL
The particle model is a fundamental concept in science that explains the behaviour of matter in its different states (solid, liquid, and
gas).
KEY ASPECTS OF THE PARTICLE MODEL ARE:
• Intermolecular Forces:
• Particles in matter are held together by intermolecular forces, which vary in strength depending
on the state of matter.
• In solids, the intermolecular forces are strong, holding the particles in a fixed, ordered
arrangement.
• In liquids, the intermolecular forces are weaker, allowing the particles to move past each
other.
• In gases, the intermolecular forces are very weak, allowing the particles to move freely and
independently.
• Particle Motion and Kinetic Energy:
• Particles in matter have varying degrees of kinetic energy, which determines their motion and
arrangement.
• In solids, particles have the lowest kinetic energy and vibrate around fixed positions.
• In liquids, particles have higher kinetic energy, allowing them to slide past each other.
• In gases, particles have the highest kinetic energy, allowing them to move freely and
independently.
Changes of State
• The transitions between the different form of states, known as phase changes.
• It occurs when the energy (usually in the form of heat) added to or removed from
the system is sufficient to overcome the intermolecular forces and allow the
particles to rearrange into a different state of matter.
• Solid  Liquid : Melting

• Liquid  Gas: Boiling [Fixed Temperature]

• Liquid Gas : Evaporation [Below Boiling Point/Room Temperature]

• Gas  Liquid: Condensation

• Liquid  Solid: Freezing / Solidification

• Solid Gas: Sublimation

Describe how solid/liquid turns in liquid/gas

• As temperature increases the average kinetic energy of the particles

increases .
• The particles moves or vibrate more vigorously due to higher energy.
• At a certain temperature the average kinetic energy is sufficient
enough to break the intermolecular force of attraction between the
particles.
• At this point the state changes from solid to liquid / liquid to gas
What is Absolute Zero Temperature?
• Absolute zero is defined as the temperature at which the particles
have the lowest possible kinetic energy.
• It is the point at which the thermal motion of particles is minimized,
and they are at their lowest energy state.
• The accepted value for absolute zero is 0 Kelvin (0 K), which is
equivalent to -273 degrees Celsius (°C)
• T= 273+ Ө
Force and Gas Pressure
According to the particle model, gases exert pressure due to the
constant random motion and collisions of the gas particles
(atoms or molecules) with the walls of the container.
• In a gas, the particles are widely spaced and have a high average
kinetic energy, allowing them to move freely and randomly.
• These gas particles are in constant random motion, colliding with
each other and the walls of the container.
• As the gas particles collide with the walls of the container, they
exert a force on the walls (at right angle.)
• The force exerted by the particles on the walls is what we perceive
as the pressure of the gas.
• When a gas particle collides with the wall, it undergoes a change in
momentum, as its direction of motion is altered.
• According to Newton's second law of motion, the change in
momentum of the particle results in a force being exerted on the
wall.
• The total force exerted by all the gas particles on the walls of the
container is the gas pressure.
Force and Gas Pressure
Pressure Distribution:
- The gas pressure is exerted equally in all directions within the container, as the
particles collide with the walls in random directions.
- This uniform distribution of pressure is a characteristic of gases.

Factors Affecting Gas Pressure:

- The gas pressure is directly proportional to the number of particles (the amount of
gas) in the container and the average kinetic energy (temperature) of the particles.
- Increasing the number of particles (by increasing the amount of gas) or the average
kinetic energy of the particles (by increasing the temperature) will result in an increase
in the gas pressure.

In summary, the particle model explains gas pressure as the result of the constant
random motion and collisions of gas particles with the walls of the container. The more
particles and the higher their kinetic energy, the greater the gas pressure exerted on
the walls.
Explain qualitatively, in terms of particles, the relationship between:

(a) pressure and temperature at constant volume

(b) volume and temperature at constant pressure
(c) pressure and volume at constant temperature
Pressure And Temperature At Constant Volume
• As temperature is increased the average speed/ kinetic energy of the
particles also increases.
• The particles moves faster and hit the surface with more force, as a
result collision or change in momentum of particles per second
increases and hence the pressure of the gas increases.
• Thus if the volume of fixed mass remains constant : A Rise In
Temperature Will Cause Pressure To Increase.
Volume And Temperature At Constant Pressure

• At constant pressure, if the temperature of the gas increases, the kinetic

energy of the gas particles increases. The particles move faster and
collide with the container walls more frequently and with greater force.
• To maintain the same pressure when the particles have higher kinetic
energy, the volume of the container must increase. This gives the
particles more space to move around in.
• As the volume increases, the average distance between the particles also
increases. This causes the rate of collisions between the particles and the
container walls to decrease.
• The decrease in the collision rate due to the increased volume
counterbalances or "balances" the increase in collision rate caused by
the higher kinetic energy of the particles
Pressure And Volume At Constant Temperature
• At a constant temperature, the kinetic energy of the gas particles remains
constant. The particles collide with the container walls with the same average
force and frequency.
• As the pressure of the gas is increased the volume of the gas decreases. This
can be explained in terms of particle:
• The pressure of the gas is increased but the average kinetic energy i.e.
temperature of the gas is kept constant. Which means the pressure will increase
without increasing the average kinetic energy or temperature of the gas particles.
And this can be done if the volume is reduced in a way so that the no. of
collisions increases within the container. When the volume decreases, the gas
particles have less space to move around in. The average distance between the
particles decreases and frequency of collisions increases. The increased
frequency of collisions with the walls results in a greater force exerted by the
particles on the walls. Hence if pressure increases volume decreases at a
Boyel’s Law | Charle’s Law | Pressure Law
• Boyel’s Law: The Pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely
proportional to its volume if its temperature is kept constant.
• P ∝ (1/V) i.e. PV= k
• Charles Law: The volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional
to its absolute temperature if the pressure is kept constant.
• V∝T i.e V/T = k
• Pressure Law: The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature if volume is kept constant
• P∝T i.e P/T = k
The Pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional
to its volume if its temperature is kept constant.
P ∝ (1/V) i.e. PV= k
2.2 Thermal Properties and Temperatures
Bimetallic Strip
• A bimetallic strip is a component
made of two different metals
that are joined together and
expand at different rates when
heated. Riveted together so that
they cannot move separately
• Thermostat
• Fire Alarm
EXPANSION JOINTS IN BUILDINGS AND BRIDGES:
• When construction materials
like concrete, steel, or bricks
are exposed to high
temperatures (e.g., during hot
summer days), they expand.
• To accommodate this
expansion, gaps called
expansion joints are left
between sections of
buildings, bridges, and other
structures.
• These joints allow the
materials to expand without
causing cracks or damage.
• Thermometers: Thermometers work
on the principle of thermal
expansion. When the temperature
rises, the liquid (e.g., mercury or
alcohol) inside the thermometer
expands, causing it to rise in the
narrow tube, indicating the
temperature increase.
• Hot air balloons: Hot air balloons
rely on the thermal expansion of air.
When air inside the balloon is
heated, it expands and becomes less
dense than the surrounding cooler
air, causing the balloon to rise.