HIGHER

NERVOUS
ACTIVITY OF
THE BRAIN
Presented by
Enas Alarfaj
This Chapter covers:
Higher nervous activity(HNA) which
includes:
Types of Internal
History of
inhibition
conditioned reflex
Types/properties of higher
Conditioned reflex
nervous activity:
Rules for
Conditioned Memory &
reflex types
Mechanism of
formation
 History
I.P. Pavlov
Pavlov’s started accidentally, on a basis of his works
studying the digestive processes on dogs
While studying salivation in dogs, he noticed an
interesting occurrence: experimental dogs began to
salivate whenever an assistant entered the room.

Pavlov’s dogs were responding to the sight of

assistant(white lab coat), which the animals had
associated with them in the presence of food.

To test his theory, Pavlov set up an experiment in which

he rang a bell shortly before presenting food to the dogs.
At first, the dogs showed no response to the bells.
However, eventually, the dogs began to salivate at the
sound of the bell alone.
1849- 1936
 HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY
Higher Nervous Activity: is the whole set
of neurological processes that provide of
the acquired behavioral reactions

Pavlov is the first investigator of

higher nervous activity

Reflex: is a response of an organism to a

stimuli mediated by the CNS

Conditioned reflex: is the individual acquired

adaptive reaction of the organism arising on the
formation of the temporary connection in the
CNS between the centers of conditioned(neutral)
stimuli and unconditioned response execution
 HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY
Conditions to produce Pavlovian(classical)
reflex:
Order: Conditioned stimulus should
precede uncontained stimulus
Timing: the period between
conditioned and unconditioned
stimuli should be from 30sec-
2mins
The strength of the conditioned
stimulus should be less then of the
unconditioned one
The dog should be healthy and
hungry plus have an appropriate
motivation
Intensity of the stimulus: For example
if the sound of the bell is painful, it
may disturb the formation of
conditioned reflex
Importance: comparing both stimuli to
the dog, clearly the food(unconditioned)
is much more important than the
conditioned stimuli
Combination of these two types of
stimuli should be repeated everyday
at the same time
Absence of external irritating factors
 Conditioned reflex Mechanism of Cortex
formation:
In order to observe conditioned reflex, there
must be a formation of temporal connection in
the higher part of the CNS
Temporal connection: is a combination of
neurophysiological, chemical, structural changes
in the brain that occurs during the joined action
of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli over a
period of time
Subcortical
Mechanism: once the bell rings, auditory centers
receptors of the ear start to send impulses to the
auditory cortex(A) through neural pathway and
produces orientation reflex(alertness reaction due (A): Auditory cortical center
to sudden noise) (B): cortical center of Salivation
(C): auditory subcortical center
(D): Subcortical center of
Mechanism(continued): from then auditory
cortical centers are activated sending impulses
around also called as irradiation, this irradiation
doesn’t activate many centers because in order
to do so, there must several impulses delivered
to neurons. So at first the impulses from (A)
centers don’t have an impact on (B), then after
few seconds of exposure to conditioned
stimulus, food(unconditioned stimulus) is
presented after repetitions, the dog start to
salivate and eat.

Conditioned reflex begins to

Mechanism(continued)
At that moment chemical receptors of the tongue are
stimulated and sends impulses to the subcortical
salivary centers, and to cortical representation area of
salivation where it becomes activated and when this
excitability is repeated over time, the excitability
becomes higher, the weak impulse from A
center(Auditory cortical center is now enough to
stimulate B center(salivation cortical centers).

And after several repetitions, a temporary neural

pathway is formed that is where the conditioned
reflex is produced after the impulse passes the
subcortical salivary center to the salivary glands
secreting saliva from only hearing the sound of the
bell. Conditioned reflex is formed
 HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY
Inhibition: suppresses or
slows down the activity of
neurons or excitability
Internal inhibition: the process whereby
the conditioned reflex is inhibited
through lack of repeated reinforcement
by the unconditioned stimulus.

Types of conditioned
inhibition/internal:
- extinction inhibition
- differentiation inhibition
- delayed inhibition
Extinction inhibition: the gradual weakening of a
conditioned response that results in the behaviour
decreasing or disappearing.
In other words, it is a form of internal inhibition, in
which the positive conditioned stimulus is
temporarily transformed into a negative or
inhibitory response, by the simple method of
repeating it several times in succession without
reinforcement
•Example:
•Dog is conditioned to associate bell with food.
•Dog salivates at bell
•This happens a few times, but no food arrives.
•Dog stops salivating when the bell rings.
 HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY

Differentiation inhibition: a classical conditioning

experiment in which two or more stimuli are used,
each paired with different outcomes.

Psychologically, a decreased tendency to

respond to stimuli resembling the original
conditioning stimulus

For Example
one stimulus (the positive conditioned
stimulus(bell) is paired with an unconditioned
stimulus (food), and another (e.g., a tone) is
not paired
 HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY
Delayed inhibition:
which occurs when the conditioned stimulus is not
reinforced by the unconditioned stimulus within the
first few minutes(max 2mins)
Short delayed inhibition tone (NS) might sound
immediately before the food (US) is presented.
Long delay: is the period during which the conditioned
stimulus is presented long enough to produce
inhibition of delay. E.g. The CS comes but there is a
long interval before the us is delivered
e.g. if a 15 second tone (the CS) precedes delivery of food
(UC)to a dog, salivation (CR) will eventually occur only
after the tone has been on for a few seconds, not when it first
comes on
 HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY
Types/properties of higher Hippocrates
nervous activity:
For the first time described by Hippocrates 4
temperaments:
Sanguine, Choleric, phlegmatic, melancholic

According to the classification by

Pavlov, these 4 temperaments can be
distinguished on the bases of:
Strength of nervous processes: strong or weak excitation or
inhibition
Lability: the speed of flow of nervous processes(inert
or labile)
Balance of excitation and inhibition:
balance or imbalance 460 BC-370 BC
 HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY
Types/properties of higher
nervous activity:
 HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY

Sanguine temperaments

By H.Bidstrup
According to Pavlov
“Lively” strong, labile, balanced
 HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY

Choleric temperaments

By H.Bidstrup
According to Pavlov
“Unrestrained” Strong labile, unbalanced
 HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY

Melancholic Temperament

By H.Bidstrup
According to Pavlov
Weak type
 HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY

Phlegmatic temperaments

By H.Bidstrup
According to Pavlov
“Quiet” strong, well balanced, nonlabile type
 HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY
Memory: Is the ability of the brain to store
information and recall it in the future.
Memory is: created by changes in the sensitivity of
synaptic transmission
between neurons as a result of previous neural activity.
These changes
will create new paths or facilitated paths for the
development of signal
transmission through the neural circuits in the brain. These
new or facilitated paths are called memory traces
(engrams)
According to the time of keeping of information in
memory , we distinguish:
Sensory Secondary memory(long-term)
memory(immediate) Tertiary memory(permeant)
 HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY
Sensory memory(immediate): Primary memory(short-term):

Duration: Duration:
very short(0.5)sec mins to hours
Capacity: Capacity:
very small(15-20 bits) Small bits if information

Entry into storage: Entry into storage:

automatic during perception Verbalization(describing items
in words)
Access into storage: very rapid
Vision: iconic memory Access or recall:
Hearing: echoic memory rapid
 HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY
Secondary memory(long-term): Tertiary memory(permeant):

Duration: hours to years Duration: permanent

Capacity:
Capacity:
Very large
very large
Information stored according to its
significant
Entry into storage:
Entry into storage: very frequent practice
1-stimulation of the reward or punishment
Recall or access into storage:
system
very rapid, recall not affected by
2- repeated practice of the experience
brain injury(like name, writing, and
Recall or access into storage: slow read)
 HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY
Memories are often classified according to the type of information that is
stored:
Declarative memory: memory of many details Experiential memory: it is often associated
of the with motor activities
integrated idea of important of the body, such as skill at the stroke of
experiences that include: the tennis ball,
-memory of neighbourhood including automatically
-memory of temporal relationships Remembrance of all activities associated
-memory of causes of experience with
-memory of importance of experience this stroke.
 HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY
Some interesting videos about memory….

Title: Meet the two-time world champion

in memory by Chalmers University of
Technology
https://youtu.be/4caEuNmlaWA

Title: How to triple your memory by using this trick | Ricardo

Leeuw On | TEDx Haarlem
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JsC9ZHi79jo
 Chapter of
Sensory System
This Chapter covers:
Sensory system which includes:
Sensory Receptors & Types
Important Terms
Basic Anatomy of special senses
Neural Pathway of special senses
Defects Of vision
 Introduction
The Sensory System: is a part of
the nervous system responsible
for processing sensory
information

A sensory system consists of: sensory receptors,

neural pathways, and parts of the brain involved
in sensory perception.

Sensory systems include: the visual, auditory,

gustatory (taste), olfactory (smell), somatosensory
(touch, pain, temperature, proprioception), and
vestibular (balance, spatial orientation) systems
 Sensory Receptors
Sensory receptors: is specialized
cells that collect information from
the environment to the CNS

Its role: stimulates neurons to

send impulses along the
sensory fiber and into the
photoreceptor Touch receptor Smell receptor
brain
Types of Sensory receptors:
Photoreceptor Thermoreceptor
Mechanoreceptor Osmoreceptor
Chemoreceptor
Nociceptor
Hearing receptor Taste receptor
 Classifications
Types of sensory receptors by stimulus
response:
Photoreceptors: wavelengths of light
Mechanoreceptors: mechanical movement e.g.

Muscle stretch
Touch
Sound
Blood
pressure
Thermoreceptors: hot and cold
Osmoreceptors: changes in the concentration of solutes
dissolved in the blood
Chemoreceptors: presence of
specific chemicals
Taste
Smell
Nociceptors: Tissue damage (pain)
 Terms
Important terms you need to know.….
Perception: is the conscious interpretations of the external world created by patterns of brain activity
Perception process involves: Organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information.

Its Limited by our receptor types:

e.g. humans cannot sense magnetic fields or UV lights
Limited by our level of sensitivity:
e.g. humans only hear certain frequencies(from 20 to 20,000 Hz)
Limited by central processing and Filtering:
Based on your receptor sensitivity and your prior experience(emotions, memory) to satisfy your body needs
The outer region of the brain, the cerebral cortex is responsible
for:
Sensation: the awareness of the stimuli
Perception: interpretation of the stimuli
 Perception

What Do you see in these pictures??

Do you see two faces or a vase? Do you see tree branches or animals?
 Terms
Important terms you need to know.….
Adequate Stimulus: is a property of a sensory receptor that determines the type of energy to which a sensory receptor
responds with the initiation of sensory transduction.
Sensory receptors are activated based on a specific stimulus with various sensitivities, this is called Adequate
Stimulus.
Adequate stimulus at a receptor causes changes in the electrical activity in a sensory neuron.
Stimulus intensity: is the strength of the sensory input to the brain.
Intensity of a stimulus is determined by:
The number of receptors stimulated –the stronger the stimuli then more area are affected-
The Frequency of Action potential –stronger stimuli generate a large receptor potential, therefore a greater
frequency of action potential is generated-
Neuron habituation: neurons reduces their response to repeated stimuli by
depressing synaptic activity
For example: repeated stimulus deceases the activity of the neurons through changes in
the calcium voltage gated channels in the presynaptic terminal
 Terms
Important terms you need to know.….
Receptive field: is the small region by which the sensory neuron that respond to the stimulus are within this
region
Sensitivity of an area is determined by the amount of receptors per area, where the
most receptors in a small place leads to the highest sensitivity
Small region, with the presence of dense receptive field corresponds the most sensitive area
e.g. fingertip touch receptors(Merkel's disks and Meissner's corpuscles)
Large area, diffuse(spreaded out) receptive field corresponds to the least sensitive region
e.g. lower leg touch receptor(Merkel's disks and Meissner's corpuscles)
Lateral inhibition: phenomenon in which a neuron's response to a stimulus is inhibited by the excitation of a
neighbouring neuron
It helps to increase sensory discrimination(differentiation) and localization when receptive field are very dense

Receptive field closest to the stimulus will be most active, and receptive fields nearby will be only weakly activated

This phenomenon occurs to prevent overstimulation of the small region

 Lateral inhibition
Activity in the afferent neurons Lateral inhibition
 Special Senses
The special senses are located in
special sense organs containing
sensory receptor and sensory afferent
which carries the information from the
environment to the CNS and into the
sensory cortex

Includes:
Olfactory(Nose)
Gustatory(tongue)
Auditory(Ears)
Visual(Eyes)
Vestibular(Inner Ear)
 Basic Anatomy of the eye
Accessory Structures of the eye: protects and aid in eye
functions
These structures include:
Eyebrows:
which shades the eye from sun light
Prevent perspiration and dust from reaching the
eye
Eyelids:
Offers protection from foreign objects
and spreads secretions to moisten the
eye
Eye lashes: are innervated by hair follicles
that causes blinking reflex
 Basic Anatomy of the eye
Conjunctiva:
transparent mucous membrane that
produces a lubricating mucous
secretions preventing dehydration

Lacrimal apparatus:
Consist of lacrimal gland and
ducts that drain into nasal cavity

Lacrimal gland:
Is located in orbit above lateral end of the eye
and secrets lacrimal secretions(tears), a dilute
saline containing mucous, antibodies, and
antibacterial lysosome
 Basic Anatomy of the eye
Extrinsic eye muscles:
Six straplike extrinsic eye muscles that
enable the eye to follow moving objects,
maintain shape of eyeball, and hold it in
the orbit
Four rectus muscles:
Superior, inferior, lateral, and medial
rectus
Two oblique muscles:
Moves the eye in vertical plane and rotate eyeball
Superior(rotates the eye down & laterally),
inferior oblique muscles(rotates the eye up and
laterally)
 Basic Anatomy of the eye

Summary of muscle actions and innervating cranial nerve

 Defects of the special senses: vision

Conjunctivitis: inflammation of the conjunctiva

resulting in redden, irritated eyes
Pinkeye: conjunctival infection of the eye caused by
bacteria/virus
Careful: highly contagious
Diplopia(double vision): Occurs when the movement
of the external muscle of two eyes are perfectly
coordinated
Person cannot properly focus images of same area
of the visual field from each eye, resulting in
seeing two images instead of one
May result from paralysis, extrinsic muscle
weakness, neurological disorder
 Basic Anatomy of the eye
Sclera: The outermost layer of the eye
is white in color and maintains the
shape of the eye
The anterior portion of the sclera is a clear
window that allows light to enter the eye.
This area is known as the cornea, the
cornea partially refract the light waves

Covering the exposed surface of

both cornea and sclera is a clear,
thin, protective membranous
covering known as conjunctiva
 Basic Anatomy of the eye
The eye is made up of three
layers:
The outer layer(fibrous tunic):
which consist of Sclera and
cornea
The middle layer(vascular tunic):
which consist of the iris ciliary
and choroid body, responsible for
nourishment.
Inner layer(nervous tunic): consist
of retina, it contains 2 types of
photoreceptors known as rods and
cones
 Basic Anatomy of the eye
Layers of the retina and content
Outer Nuclear Layer
Rods, Cones
Inner Nuclear Layer
Horizontal cells, bipolar cells, amacrine
cells, Müller cells

Ganglion cell layer

Ganglion cells, displaced amacrine cells
Outer plexiform layer
Synapses between photoreceptor,
bipolar, and horizontal cells
Inner plexiform layer
Synapses between bipolar,
amacrine, and ganglion cells
 THE Special sense: vision
Accommodation of the eye: is the ability of the eye to
change the focal length of the lens by changing the
curvature of the eye lens
Lens gets more concave for
imaging that are far away
Lens gets more convex for
imaging that are close
For imaging to appear clearly for the
viewer, the image must be precisely
projected on the fovea
The fovea centralis: is a small, flat spot located in the
center of the posterior portion of the retina responsible
for high-acuity vision it is densely saturated with cone
photoreceptor
THE Special sense: vision
Accommodation problems
 THE Special sense: vision
Visual receptors
There are two types of photoreceptors:
Rods:
-Rod shaped
-Low intensity wavelength
-More sensitivity
-Scotopic vision
Cones:
-Cone shaped
-high intensity(wavelength)
Photopic vision/color vision
Scotopic vision: is vision under low-light
levels
Photopic vision: is vision at high levels of light
and provides color perception
 THE Special sense: vision
Visual Pathway:

Axons of retinal
ganglion cells form
optic nerve
Medial fibers from each eye cross over
at the chiasma then continues on as
optic tract

Most fibers of optic tracts

continue on to the thalamus
From there, thalamic neurons project to
primary visual cortex in occipital lobe
where conscious perception of visual
image
 THE Special sense: Olfaction
Olfaction:

Olfactory epithelium: This epithelium consists

of olfactory receptor cells, supporting cells, and
basal cells (stem cells)

Lamina propria: The lamina propria of olfactory

epithelium contains olfactory glands which produce
mucus.

Stimulus: smell(chemicals dissolved

in the olfactory mucosa)

Receptor: olfactory receptor

 THE Special sense: Olfaction
Pathway:
The olfactory receptor cells: are
highly modified bipolar neurons. The
axons of these cells collect into 20 or
more bundles that pass through the
cribriform plate and synapse with
second-order neurons in the olfactory
bulb.

The axons of the second-order neurons

travel in the olfactory tract to reach the
olfactory cortex, the hypothalamus, and
portions of the limbic system.
 THE Special sense: Gustation
Gustation (Taste):
Gustatory receptors are distributed over the dorsal
surface of the tongue in taste buds. Taste buds are
recessed into the surrounding epithelium and
contain gustatory cells, transitional cells, and basal
cells. The gustatory cells have microvilli (taste
hairs) that extend through a narrow opening of the
taste bud called the taste pore.

Stimulus: food(chemicals dissolved in saliva)

Receptors: gustatory receptors

 THE Special sense: Gustation
Taste buds are found on the sides of three of
four types of papillae found on the surface of the tongue:

1. Filiform papillae - are "thread-shaped" papillae that do

not have taste buds but are responsible for the tongue's
roughness.
The remaining three papillae have taste buds along their side walls.
Which are:
2. Fungiform papillae - are "mushroom-shaped" papillae are
scattered over the anterior two-thirds of the tongue.
3. Foliate papillae - are creases and folds along the posterior sides
of the tongue.
4. Circumvallate papillae -are papillae in which a central bump is
surrounded by a "wall" of tissue. The circumvallate papillae are
arranged in an inverted V formation at the boundary between the
root and body of the tongue.
 THE Special sense: Gustation
Gustatory pathway
 THE Special sense: Auditory
The ear is divided into three anatomical regions:
The external ear: which collects and directs sound waves to the
eardrum.
The structures of the external ear include
Auricle (pinna): It is a flexible fold of skin supported internally
by elastic cartilage that surrounds the external acoustic meatus.

External acoustic meatus (canal): This canal permits

sound waves to strike the tympanic membrane.
Ceruminous glands: These glands are found in the skin lining the
external acoustic meatus. The waxy secretion of this gland slows
the growth of microorganisms.
Tympanic membrane (tympanum): This is a delicate, semi-
transparent membrane that separates the external and middle ears.
 THE Special sense: Auditory
The middle ear consists of an air-filled space called the
tympanic cavity.
The tympanic cavity is connected with the nasopharynx by
the auditory tube (Eustachian tube). The tympanic cavity
also communicates with the mastoid sinuses in the mastoid
process. It is through this connection that infections can
spread from the middle ear to the meninges of the brain to
cause meningitis.

Auditory Ossicles
Three tiny bones called ear ossicles are found in the
middle ear and transfer the vibrations of the tympanic
membrane to the fluid-filled chambers of the inner ear.
The ear ossicles act as levers that amplify the force of
vibration delivered to the inner ear.
 THE Special sense: Auditory
Auditory Ossicles
1. Malleus (Hammer) - attaches to the
tympanum
2. Incus (Anvil) - middle ossicle
3. Stapes (Stirrup) - The base or, foot plate, of
this bone covers the oval window on the inner
ear.
The magnitude of the force that reaches the inner ear
can be reduced by two muscles that dampen the
vibrations produced by loud sounds.
1. Tensor Tympani M. - attaches to the malleus and by
contracting stiffens the tympanic membrane reducing
vibration.
2. Stapedius M. - attaches to the stapes and by
contracting reduces the vibrations of the stapes.
 THE Special sense: Auditory
Inner Ear
The receptors for equilibrium and hearing are
located within fluid-filled chambers and tubes
that form the membranous labyrinth. The fluid
of the membranous labyrinth is called
endolymph and differs from extracellular fluid
in having a high potassium and low sodium
concentration.
The membranous labyrinth is surrounded and
protected by a shell of bone called the bony
labyrinth. The contours of the bony labyrinth closely
resemble the membranous labyrinth. The space
between the membranous and bony labyrinth is
filled with a fluid called perilymph that closely
resembles CSF.
 THE Special sense: Auditory
Inner Ear
The bony labyrinth can be divided into three regions
the vestibule, semicircular canals and cochlea.
The bony wall of the bony labyrinth is solid except at
two locations at the base of the cochlea:

1. Round window - is a round opening in the bone

that is spanned by a thin, flexible membrane.
2. Oval window - is an oval opening that is sealed
by the foot plate of the stapes which is held in
position by an annular ligament that attaches the
outer edge of the footplate to the edge of the oval
window
Stimulus: sound(fluid vibration in inner ear)
Receptor: hair cells in cochlea
 THE Special sense: Auditory
Auditory pathway
THE Special sense: Auditory
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