Air-stream mechanisms

HELEEN ALI
MA LINGUISTIC PROGRAM
2024
Outline
An Overview of Speech Production
Types of Air-stream Mechanisms
Pulmonic Air-stream Mechanism
The glottis
Glottalic Air-stream Mechanism
The velum
The velaric Air-stream mechanism
An Overview of Speech Production
 Speech involves making movements audible through the action of speech organs, primarily using
an air-stream.
 The airstream mechanism refers to the process by which the vocal tract creates airflow. There is
no production of sound in the absence of airstream mechanics. This is owing to the fact that this
mechanism is compulsory for the initiation of sound production – the first part of the process of
sound production.
 While some noises can be produced by speech organs without an air-stream (e.g., gnashing
teeth), the foundation of human speech sounds lies in the production of an air-stream.
 An air-stream mechanism is likened to various mechanical devices like a fruit-spray, Flit gun,
syringe, or pop-gun. These devices involve enclosed or nearly enclosed bodies of air or liquid set
in motion by the movement of a part, usually a plunger.
 In speech production, the equivalent of the plunger is called the initiator, which is capable of
generating the airstream
Types of Air-stream Mechanisms:
Three main types of air-stream mechanisms are used in human speech, each with a different
initiator. These mechanisms can be used to either push air out (egressive) or pull it in
(ingressive).
1. The pulmonic air-stream mechanism
2. The glottalic air-stream mechanism
3. The velaric air-stream mechanism
1. Pulmonic Air-stream Mechanism:
The pulmonic air-stream mechanism, involving the lungs and respiratory
muscles, is the primary mechanism for human speech.
It operates by moving the walls of the lungs, which act as the initiator, to
draw air into or push air out of the lungs.
While typically used for ordinary breathing, it is modified for speech
production, where breathing out becomes an active process requiring
muscular control.
Both egressive (outward flow) and ingressive (inward flow) pulmonic air-
streams can be observed in speech, although ingressive pulmonic use in
speech is less common.
An ingressive pulmonic air-stream can be observed to occur in various non-linguistic acts of the
organs of speech, such as a yawn, or most kinds of snoring.
In some linguistic contexts, particularly in English, parts of words or entire words may be
pronounced with an ingressive pulmonic air-stream. For example, the first part of the word
"yes" may be pronounced with ingressive airflow, while the final "-s" is pronounced with
egressive airflow. Similarly, convulsive sobs during speech may result in parts of speech being
produced with ingressive airflow.
using an ingressive air-stream significantly changes the quality of the voice. This alteration in
voice quality is noticeable upon a brief trial.
In certain communities, an ingressive air-stream is used as a disguise, particularly when the
speaker does not wish to be recognized. For example, it may be used to conceal the identity of
someone courting their girlfriend outside her house at night from her parents.
Speaking involves modified breathing, where the rhythmic movements of the lungs for
breathing become consciously controlled for speech.
Muscular control of expiration for speaking is often unconscious due to lifelong speaking habits,
although it may become consciously controlled in certain situations like public speaking or
singing.
1.1 The glottis
Pulmonic air-stream passes through the windpipe (trachea) during breathing.
Larynx, situated at the top of the windpipe, is crucial for speech production.
Vocal cords within the larynx are essential for speech production.
They're alternatively referred to as vocal bands, lips, ligaments, folds, or ledges.
Functionally, they act as movable lips horizontally across the windpipe.
Vocal cords can be brought together or pulled apart. Their movement forms a V-shaped opening
into the throat (pharynx).
Explanation of vocal cord action is challenging in words.
Suggestion: High-speed cinematography for observing their movements in slow motion.
Definition of Glottis:
The space between the vocal cords, serving as the opening from the windpipe into the throat, is
referred to as the glottis.
The vocal cords can by their action bring about a number of different states of the glottis, and
the state of the glottis at any given moment during the speech produced by the pulmonic air-
stream mechanism is of the greatest importance.
Four States of the Glottis
(a) Open Glottis (‘breath state’): The glottis is fully open, allowing
for the passage of air without vibration of the vocal cords.
(b) Glottis in Vibration (‘voice state’): The vocal cords are brought
together and vibrate, producing voiced sounds.
(c) Narrowed Glottis (‘whisper state’): The glottis is partially
closed, causing turbulence in the airflow and producing whispered
sounds.
(d) Closed Glottis: The glottis is completely closed, preventing
airflow, typically occurring during swallowing or the production of
certain sounds in some languages.
Open Glottis (‘breath state’):
When the glottis is open, the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, allowing an air-stream
to pass through freely. This state is typical during normal breathing, where it produces
little to no sound, or at most a gentle rustling noise.
The open glottis state is also common in speech. When the glottis is in this position
during speech production, it is referred to as the state or position for 'breath'. Any
speech segment produced with the glottis open is described as being produced 'with
breath', 'breathed', or more commonly, as being voiceless.

Speech segments produced with the glottis open are termed voiceless because they
lack the vibration of the vocal cords that typically produces voiced sounds. This
distinction becomes apparent when observing the absence of voiced sound during
speech produced with an open glottis.
Glottis in Vibration (‘voice state’):
When the glottis is in vibration, the vocal cords are brought into contact and blown apart by the force of
the pulmonic air-stream flowing through it. This action causes the vocal cords to flap open and shut
rapidly, allowing the air-stream to pass through in a series of tiny puffs.

This flapping open and shut of the vocal cords constitutes the process called phonation, which produces
a buzzing noise known as voice. Phonation is the reason the larynx is also referred to as the 'phonatory
system'. The production of voice is likened to how a musical note is produced by a bugler or trumpeter
using their lips.
When the glottis is in vibration, the effect can be felt on the surface of the front of the throat by resting
fingers there. Additionally, if the ears are stopped by the fingers while voice is produced, it can be heard
as a distinctive buzzing noise inside the head.
In normal speech with a pulmonic egressive air-stream, voice, in the technical sense, is responsible for
most of the noise made and the carrying power of speech. However, voice is not continuous during
speech; it occurs intermittently as the glottis alternates between being in vibration and not.
Segments of speech produced while the glottis is in vibration are termed 'voiced', while those produced
with the glottis open are termed 'voiceless'. This distinction is crucial in speech description and analysis.
The opening and shutting of the vocal cords can occur at different speeds, depending on their tension
and the force of the air-stream. The frequency of their vibration determines the pitch of the voice: the
faster they vibrate, the higher the pitch. Consequently, the pitch of the voice constantly fluctuates
during speech.
Surgical removal of the larynx, known as 'laryngectomy', leads to the inability to produce voice and
audible speech in the typical manner. This procedure also eliminates the possibility of a pulmonic air-
stream, necessitating breathing through a tube inserted in the neck.
Despite the loss of the larynx, communication with others is still possible through speech. This is
achieved using an 'artificial larynx' or vibrator, which replicates the noise produced by vibrating vocal
cords. The vibrator can be held against the neck or inserted into the mouth, often incorporated into a
dental plate, for example
Narrowed Glottis (‘whisper state’):
In the whisper state, the vocal cords are brought close together, but not enough to
vibrate. This narrowing of the glottis impedes the airflow, resulting in a soft hissing
noise, known as a whisper. Any speech segment produced with the glottis in this state
is described as whispered.

In its popular sense, the word ‘whisper’ means to utter speech in which there are no
voiced stretches at all. When people whisper, in this sense, any parts of the utterance
which would normally be voiceless remain as they are, but those parts of the utterance
which would normally be voiced are replaced by parts which are whispered in the
technical phonetic sense, as defined above. It is important to avoid confusion between
these two uses, the popular and the technical, of the term.
The whisper state of the glottis is not limited to the act of whispering in the popular
sense. It occurs in various circumstances during the pronunciation of many languages,
including English.
Closed Glottis:
When the glottis is entirely closed, the vocal cords are brought together firmly enough to block the
passage of the air-stream. This closure interrupts the airflow completely, temporarily isolating the lungs
from the outside air.
The original function of the vocal cords was to provide this type of closure, likely for protective purposes
such as preventing foreign objects from entering the airway.
The glottis assumes this closed position momentarily for various non-linguistic acts, such as coughs and
hiccups, where a sudden closure of the glottis is necessary for protective or reflexive purposes.
Additionally, the closed glottis position is relevant in linguistics, particularly in certain dialects and speech
patterns. For example, in the Glasgow dialect and many other urban and rural British forms of speech,
there's a phonetic phenomenon known as the "glottal stop." This term refers to a closure of the glottis
that occurs during speech, resulting in a brief interruption of airflow and a distinct sound. The glottal stop
has gained considerable recognition, both technically in phonetics and popularly in language discussions.
2. Glottalic Air-stream Mechanism:
The closed state of the glottis forms the basis for the glottalic air-stream mechanism, which is
one of the three main air-stream mechanisms used in human speech.
In this mechanism, the larynx itself acts as the initiator with the glottis firmly closed. The larynx
is equipped with muscles that enable it to move up or down in the throat. When the glottis is
closed and the larynx is moved downwards, it draws air after it, while moving upwards pushes
air out. This action is analogous to a plunger in a syringe.
The air set in motion by this mechanism is in the pharynx and above, hence it's also referred to
as the pharyngeal air-stream mechanism, especially in America. The air below the larynx, in the
trachea, bronchial tubes, and lungs, is not affected.
Sounds produced by the glottalic air-stream mechanism, whether ingressive or egressive, are found in
many languages. They occur alongside pulmonic-egressively produced speech, particularly common in
languages of the Caucasus, Africa, Central and North America, and sporadically in other parts of the world.
These sounds are often made by small children for fun and have a distinctive timbre that cannot be
described in words; they need to be heard to be appreciated.
The volume of air controlled by the glottalic mechanism is not sufficient for continuous speech. Moreover,
vowels pronounced with this mechanism are inaudible.
While it's not typically used for continuous talking, some individuals who have undergone a laryngectomy
use an artificial larynx. This device provides the carrying power for speech and makes vowels audible,
while a glottalic egressive air-stream reinforces consonants.
Interestingly, some laryngectomized speakers have been able to control another unexpected air-stream
mechanism, namely belching, for speaking. This method, known as esophageal speech, allows them to
produce speech without a larynx.
2.1 The velum
The egressive pulmonic or glottalic air-stream can exit to the outer air through two
paths: the nostrils and the lips. These paths diverge in the throat above the larynx,
with one leading to the outer air through the nose and the other through the
mouth. Both paths can also serve as entrances for an ingressive air-stream or
outlets for an egressive one.
The outlet through the nose can be opened or shut by a valve located where the
two paths diverge. This valve is controlled by the soft part of the palate, known as
the velum. When the velum is lowered, the passage through the nose is open, but
when fully raised, it shuts off the passage through the nose.
The soft part of the palate, or velum, can be moved up and down by muscles
attached to it. When raised, only the mouth serves as an escape for the air-stream,
but when lowered, it can escape through both the mouth and the nose.
During normal speech, the velum constantly alternates between being raised and lowered,
resulting in alternating nasal and oral stretches of speech.
When the velum is raised, creating a closure, it's called a velic closure. Without this closure,
parts of speech are termed nasal or nasalized, while those with the closure are termed oral.
Although the passage through the nose can be consciously controlled with practice, the
movements of the velum are typically unconscious. Phoneticians must learn to be aware of
these automatic movements to fully understand speech production.
A "nasal twang" in the voice results from keeping the velum lowered during speech, while
having it constantly raised, often due to inflammation, leads to a different effect.
 3. The velaric air-stream mechanism
The initiator of the velaric air-stream mechanism is the back part of the tongue, which is lifted and firmly
pressed against the velum (soft part of the palate). This creates a closure.
The tongue is then pushed forward in the mouth while maintaining contact with the velum to produce an
egressive air-stream, or pulled back to produce an ingressive air-stream.
This mechanism only sets in motion the air in the mouth, hence it's also known as the oral air-
stream mechanism.
Segments produced by this mechanism, known as "clicks," are found in certain languages in Africa such
as Zulu, Hottentot, and Bushman. These clicks are interspersed in speech and also occur as interjections in
various languages worldwide. For example, The sound that English-speakers use to express annoyance, and
represent in writing as tut tut or tsk tsk, is made by an ingressive velaric air-stream, and so also is the sound
made to encourage horses (the ‘gee-up’ click).
The velaric mechanism is employed in smoking. Regular cigarette smokers inhale smoke in two
stages: first by using an ingressive velaric mechanism to draw smoke into the mouth, then by
using an ingressive pulmonic mechanism to take it into the lungs. Occasional smokers use velaric
mechanisms both to extract and expel smoke, ensuring it remains in the mouth.
Inexperienced smokers who attempt direct inhalation often cough violently due to the
sensitivity of vocal cords to heat. Seasoned smokers inhale in two stages to mix hot smoke with
cool air, preventing damage to the vocal cords.
The velaric ingressive mechanism, akin to sucking, is used for taking liquids into the mouth.
The velaric mechanism operates independently of the velic closure (movement of the velum).
Various combinations of air-stream mechanisms can occur simultaneously.
Some smokers perform "French inhaling" by using both a velaric egressive mechanism to push
smoke out of the mouth and a pulmonic ingressive mechanism to draw it back into the lungs
through the nose.
This combination of mechanisms is also used by some wind instrument players to play
continuously without apparent pauses for breath. They switch between pulmonic egressive and
velaric egressive mechanisms to maintain airflow.
Speech production involves various processes, including the production of different air-streams,
the action of the glottis, and nasalization controlled by the velum. Additionally, articulatory
processes play a crucial role.
Thank you