FCE 211

Engineering Properties of Rocks

BY
Kanoti
 objective
Understand:
• Physical Properties of Rock Material
– Hardness
– Abrasivity
– Permeability, porosity, water content
– Weathering of rocks
– Wave (P and S) Velocity
• Mechanical Properties of Rock Material
– Compressive Strength
– Tensile Strength
– Shear Strength
– Stress
– Strain
– Elasticity
 Definitions:
• From an engineering standpoint, there is a difference
between a rock and a stone. There is also a difference
between soil and dirt.
• 'Rock' is used to denote the mass of material in-situ, it is a
part of the bedrock and has not been moved or disturbed.
• 'Stone' is used to denote rock material that has been
removed from its bedrock location.
• In the same way, 'soil' refers to that material naturally in
place and 'dirt' is most often used to define soil that has been
removed and is, or has, been transported.
 Engineering Uses of Rocks
Rock is used for engineering purposes in 2 primary ways:
1. as a building material: items such as cut stones, beams,
support columns, decorative panels, etc. Each student can
envision examples where rock has been used in one of these
ways.
2. as a foundation: For example, on Manhattan Island, the
skyscapers are founded on granite. In Central Park, just a
short distance to the south, there are no buildings over a few
stories. Why? The bedrock under the Park consists of marine
shale and metamorphic rocks that will not support the weight
of a skyscraper.
Thus, knowing and understanding basic rock properties will
allow structures to be founded correctly so the required
support will be there.
 Density/specific gravity
• Density is a measure of mass per unit of volume.
Density of rock material various, and often related to
the porosity of the rock. It is sometimes defined by
unit weight and specific gravity. Most rocks have
density between 2,500nd 2,800 kg/m3.
• Density is common physical properties. It is
influenced by the specific gravity of the composition
minerals and the compaction of the minerals.
However, most rocks are well compacted and then
have specific gravity between 2.5 to 2.8. Density is
used to estimate overburden stress.
 Specific Gravity
This term describes the weight of a volume of rock with respect to
an equal volume of water, which weighs 1.0 gm/cm3. By weighing
equal volumes of water and different rocks, a 'specific gravity' (SG)
for that rock can be determined. These experiments are conducted
in a controlled laboratory using very specific guidelines so there are
no unexpected variations. After such work has been performed,
typical SG's for common rock types are:
Shale: ~2.75
Granite: ~2.65
Sandstone: ~2.2
Basalt: ~2.65
Marble: ~2.7
Limestone: ~2.45
Gold: ~14
 Porosity
• Porosity describes how densely the material is
packed. It is the ratio of the non-solid volume
to the total volume of material. Porosity
therefore is a fraction between 0 and 1.
• The value is typically ranging from less than
0.01 for solid granite to up to 0.5 for porous
sandstone. It may also be represented in
percent terms by multiplying the fraction by
100%.
 Water content
• Water content is a measure indicating the
amount of water the rock material contains. It
is simply the ratio of the volume of water to
the bulk volume of the rock material.
• Porosity is one of the governing factors for the
permeability. Porosity provides the void for
water to flow through in a rock material. High
porosity therefore naturally leads to high
permeability
 Hardness

• Hardness is the characteristic of a solid

material expressing its resistance to
permanent deformation. Hardness of a rock
materials depends on several factors,
including mineral composition and density.
• A typical measure is the Schmidt rebound
hardness number.
 Abrasivity
• Abrasivity measures the abrasiveness of a rock
materials against other materials, e.g., steel. It
is an important measure for estimate wear of
rock drilling and boring equipment.
• Abrasivity is highly influenced by the amount
of quartz mineral in the rock material. The
higher quartz content gives higher abrasivity.
• Abrasivity measures are given by several tests.
E.g. Cerchar test.
 Permeability
• Permeability is a measure of the ability of a material
to transmit fluids. Most rocks, including igneous,
metamorphic and chemical sedimentary rocks,
generally have very low permeability.
• As discussed earlier, permeability of rock material is
governed by porosity. Porous rocks such as
sandstones usually have high permeability while
granites have low permeability. Permeability of rock
materials, except for those porous one, has limited
interests as in the rock mass, flow is concentrated in
fractures in the rock mass.
 Wave Velocity
• Measurements of wave are often done by using P wave and
sometimes, S waves. P wave velocity measures the travel
speed of longitudinal (primary) wave in the material, while S-
wave velocity measures the travel speed of shear (secondary)
wave in the material.
• The velocity measurements provide correlation to physical
properties in terms of compaction degree of the material. A
well compacted rock has generally high velocity as the grains
are all in good contact and wave are travelling through the
solid.
• For a poorly compact rock material, the grains are not in good
contact, so the wave will partially travel through void (air or
water) and the velocity will be reduced (P-wave velocities in air
and in water are 340 and 1500 m/s respectively and are much
lower than that in solid).
 Mechanical Properties of Rock
• Not all rock is the same and it must be treated differently in
an engineering project.
• There are 3 fundamental processes which form rock, igneous,
metamorphic, and sedimentary processes.
• Each of these basic rock types have inherent structural
characteristics that define it strength and durability, and
hence, its usefulness in an engineering situation.
• It is very important to assess some basic properties of rock
before it is used as a building or founding material. Some of
the more important mechanical properties of rocks are
described.
 Rock Strength
Is a measure of the strength of a rock mass
when subjected to any one or a combination
of three primary forces:
1.Compressive Stress
2.Tensile Strength
3.Shear Strength
 Compressive Strength
• Compressive strength is the capacity of a
material to withstand axially directed
compressive forces. The most common measure
of compressive strength is the uniaxial
compressive strength or unconfined compressive
strength. Usually compressive strength of rock is
defined by the ultimate stress. It is one of the
most important mechanical properties of rock
material, used in design, analysis and modelling.
 Tensile Strength
• Tensile strength of rock material is normally defined
by the ultimate strength in tension,i.e., maximum
tensile stress the rock material can withstand. Rock
material generally has a low tensile strength. The low
tensile strength is due to the existence of
microcracks in the rock. The existence of microcracks
may also be the cause of rock failing suddenly in
tension with a small strain.
• Tensile strength of rock materials can be obtained
from several types of tensile tests: direct tensile test,
Brazilian test and flexure test.
 Shear Strength
• Shear strength is used to describe the strength of
rock materials, to resist deformation due to shear
stress. Rock resists shear stress by two internal
mechanisms, cohesion and internal friction.
Cohesion is a measure of internal bonding of the
rock material. Internal friction is caused by contact
between particles, and is defined by the internal
friction angle, φ. Different rocks have different
cohesions and different friction angles.
• Shear strength of rock material ca be determined by
direct shear test and by triaxial compression tests.
 Other Engineering Properties of
Rock Materials
• Point Load Strength Index; Point load test is
another simple index test for rock material. It gives
the standard point load index, Is(50), calculated
from the point load at failure and the size of the
specimen, with size correction to an equivalent
core diameter of 50 mm.
• Fracture Toughness; Fracture toughness of rock
materials measures the effectiveness of rock
fracturing. It is typically measured by a toughness
test.
• Swelling; Some rocks swell when they are situated
with water. Swelling is governed by the amount of
swelling montmorillonite clay minerals in the rock
material. Rock swelling is measured in confined and
unconfined conditions. Unconfined swelling is
measured by the percentage increase of length in
three perpendiculardirections, when a rock specimen
is placed in water. Confined swelling index measures
swelling in one direction while deformations in other
two directions are constrained.
 Relationships between Physical and
Mechanical Properties
• Rock Hardness, Density, and Strength; Schmidt
hammer rebound hardness is often measured during
early part of field investigation. It is a measure of the
hardness of the rock material by count the rebound
degree. At the same time, the hardness index can be
used to estimate uniaxial compressive strength of the
rock material.
• Effect of Water Content on Strength; Many tests
showed that the when rock materials are saturated or
in wet condition, theuniaxial compressive strength is
reduced, compared to the strength in dry condition.
 Stress
Stress is generally, a force applied over an area of a solid. It is
often more useful than force because it gives an idea of the
force on a single bond. The symbol for stress is often the Greek
letter "sigma". i.e. σ. Stress has the units of force over area i.e.
N/m2 which is given the special name Pascal
There are three main types of stress, defined by the way the
force interacts with the area over which it is applied
 Compressive Stress
This stress consists of two opposing forces acting
on a rock which decreases the volume of the
rock per unit area.
'Compressive strength' is the maximum force that
can be applied to a rock sample without
breaking it. Units of stress are either reported in
pounds per square inch (psi in English units) or
Newtons per square meter (N/m2 in metric
units). 1.0 Newton is equal to 1.0 Kg-m/s2 and is
derived by multiplying the mass by the gravity
force, 9.81m/s2.
Compressive Stress
 Strain
• Strain is the result of stress and is generally a
change in a dimension over an original
dimension. This makes it independent of the
size of the solid. The symbol for strain is often
the Greek letter "epsilon". i.e. ε.

As there are three stresses, so there are three

strains.
 Elasticity
This property describes the ability of rock material to rebound
to its original shape after an applied stress is relieved, or
removed.
While under stress, rock material often deforms and when
the load is removed, it is possible that not all of the
deformation will, or can be, restored, particularly when the
load was excessively heavy.
There are 2 ranges used to describe deformation of the rock:
– elastic deformation
– plastic deformation
 elastic deformation
Occurs when all of the deformation caused by
the stress is restored upon its release.
After one or more consecutive loadings and
unloading, the sample recovers exactly the
same shape and size as before that particular
loading.
 plastic deformation
• when stress that is below a critical threshold value is released,
all of the deformation is restored.
• However, if the applied stress exceeds the threshold value
(which differs for various materials and rock types),
permanent deformation results due to the load.
• This means that when the load is removed, there is a
permanent alteration to the original shape of the rock or
material. This may, or may not, be a critical concern in an
engineering project
 Elastic Modulus

• Stress produces a strain, but how much strain

is produced depends on the solid itself. The
solid is then characterised by an elastic
modulus that relates strain to stress.
• There are three elastic moduli, related to the
three stresses and strains.
 'Poisson's ratio'.
• The three stresses and strains do not operate independently. Stresses produce
strains in lateral directions as the solid tries to retain its original volume.
Poisson's ratio is a measure of how successful this is.
• Poisson's ratio is the ratio of transverse contraction strain to longitudinal
extension strain in the direction of stretching force. Tensile deformation is
considered positive and compressive deformation is considered negative. The
definition of Poisson's ratio contains a minus sign so that normal materials
have a positive ratio. Poisson's ratio, also called Poisson ratio or the Poisson
coefficient, is usually represented as a lower case Greek nu, n

• The minus sign gives a positive value to the material parameter since positive
longitudinal strains usually produce negative lateral strain. As seen from the
table, Poisson's ratio is usually about 0.3. It can be shown that a Poisson's ratio
of 0.5 is needed for the volume to stay the same as it was originally.
 Summary
• An elastic solid will return to its original size and shape when the deforming
force is removed.
• Normal Stress is Normal Force/Area,
Shear Stress is Tangential Force/Area, and
Bulk Stress is the Pressure.
• Normal Strain is Extension (force direction)/Length (force direction),
Shear Strain is Extension (force direction)/Length (at right angles to force
direction), and
Bulk Stress is the Change in Volume/Unstressed Volume.
• An elastic modulus shows how much strain results from the stress.
Young's Modulus is Normal Stress/Normal Strain,
Shear Modulus is Shear Stress/Shear Strain, and
Bulk Modulus is the Pressure/Bulk Strain.
 Residual stresses in rocks
• Additional stresses created in rocks by excessive loading or
some other disturbance may remain in the rock for a long
time after the disturbance is over.
• These are residual stresses
• Generally a stress cannot produce a deformation if the
material on which it acts is confined
• Removal of some rock materials close to the rock face
relieves the rock and the released strain can be measured
using a strainmeter
 Rock deformation in nature
• These include fractures, joints, faults and folds
• Any break in a mass of rock can be defined as a fracture
regardless of its size Fractures are caused by strains
• When a series of fractures are more or less continous and
shows a well-defined patterns bearing a relation to each
other or to elements of the rock mass, they are called joints
• If the rock mass on each side of a fracture indicate a
displacement along the fracture plane, the plane is classified
as a fault.
• When several faults occur in close proximity and parallel to
each other, the resulting zone is called a shear or fault zone