CENG 403

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
(STRUCTURAL STEEL)
 SPECIFICATIONS , LOADS AND METHOD OF
DESIGN
• Specifications
• Structural design are controlled by building codes and specifications
• The are guides that are used by the designers
• Engineering specifications are developed by various organizations involved on specified
profession
• For the safety of the public, municipal and state government developed construction codes in
order to control what is to be built
• They are legally enforced unless they are placed in the accepted code of the municipal or state
government
SPECIFICATIONS

• The following organizations have researched and developed code and specification for
their respective professional practices.
• AISC- America Institute for Steel Construction
• ACI – America Concrete Institute
• AASHTO – American Association of State Highway and Transportation Official
• Note: Old days engineers that built the pyramids, Parthenon and the Great Bridges were
controlled by few specifications
SPECIFICATIONS

• The important thing to remember about Specifications, therefore , is that they are written,
not for the purpose of restricting engineers, but the purpose of protecting th public
• Note that the most important is the ultimate responsibility for the design of a safe
structure lies with the structural designer
• The intent of these specifications is that the loading used in the design be the one that
causes the largest stresses.
SPECIFICATION – INTERNATIONAL BUILDING
CODE (IBC)
• Covers all division of the design
• Emphasizes the performance
• Provide a model set of regulation to safeguard the public in all communities
• Chapter 16 -17 is for structural design.
LOADS

• Loads are classified as

• Dead Load (D) – the weight of the structure and all permanently installed features in the
building including built-in partition, bridge

• Live Load (L) – The gravity load due to the intended usage and occupancy, including the
weight of the people, furniture, and movable equipment and partitions

• Rain load (R)- Load due to the rain water or ice, excluding the contribution of ponding
LOAD

• Snow Load(s)- load from

• Wind Load (W)
• Earthquake Load (E)
DEAD LOADS

• Loads with constant magnitude and reminds in one position

• Consists of structural fram’s weight and other loads attached permanently to the frame
• Must be estimated actual design and compared with the estimated weight
• Some weight of material are found Part 17 of Steel Manual and ASCE Table C3-1 and
C3-2
• Spend time in calculating or estimating the weight so that design process can not be
repeated due to poor estimates
 METHOD DESIGN

• There are two basic design method acceptable for designing structural steel members and
their connections
• Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
• Allowable Strength Design (ASD)

• Both method are based on the limit state design principles

LIMIT STATE DESIGN PRINCIPLES

• Is used to describe a condition at which a structure or part ceases to perform its intended functions
• Has two categories – strength and serviceability

• Strength Limit States defines

• Load-carrying capacity ,
• Excessive yielding
• Fracture
• Buckling
• Fatigue
• Gross rigid body motion
STRENGTH LIMIT STATES
SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES

• Define
• Performance
• Deflection
• Cracking
• Slipping
• Vibration
• Deterioration
LOAD COMPUTATION FOR LRFD AND ASD

• Load Resistance and Factor Design Method

• Possible service load group are formed
• Each service load is multiplied by a load factor normally greater than 1.0
• The resulting linear combination of the service load groups with each multiplied by a factor are
called FACTORED LOAD
• The largest of the combination are used to calculate
• Moment
• Shear
• And all other forces
LOAD AND RESISTANCE DESIGN (LRFD)

• Note:
• That the largest value determined may not be larger than the NOMINAL STRENGTH of
the member multiplied by the reduction or Ø factor
• Ø Rn ≥ R u
• (Reduction factor Ø)(Nominal strength of member ) ≥ Computed factored forces in
member , Ru
ALLOWABLE STRENGTH DESIGN (ASD)

• Allowable Strength Load Combination

• Service load are generally not multiple by load factors
• Service load are summed up
• Largest obtained are used to calculate moment, shear and other forces in the member
• Total load may not be greater than the nominal strengths of member divided by the
appropriate safety factor
ALLOWABLE STRENGTH DESIGN (ASD)

• Note

• Nominal strength of member / Safety Factor Ω ≥ largest computed force in member Ra

• R /Ω ≥ Ra
n
LOAD COMBINATIONS (LRFD)

• For the Steel Manual the General Design Consideration is the LRFD
• Load factors are calculated to increase the magnitudes of the service loads used in the LRFD Procedure
• 1. U =1.4D
• 2. U=1.2 D + 1.6 L + 0.5( Lr , or S or R)
• 3. U=1.2 D + 1.6 (Lr or S or R) + (L* or 0.5 W)
• 4. U=1.2D + 1.0 W + L* + 0.5 (Lr or S or R)
• 5. U=1.2D + 1.0 E + L* + 0.2S
• 6. U= 0.9 D + 1.0 W
• 7. U=0.9D + 1.0E
• * The load factor on L in the Combination 3,4, and 5 is to be taken as 1.0 for floor places of public assembly, live loads
in excess 100 psf and for parking garage live loads. The load factor is permitted to equal 0.5 for other live load .
LOAD COMBINATIONS (LRFD)

• Where
• U = the design load
• D= the dead load
• L = live load due to occupancy
• Lr = roof live load
• S = snow load
• R= nominal load due to initial rainwater or ice, exclusive of ponding contribution
• W = wind load
• E= earthquake load
NOTES FOR LRFD APPLICATIONS

• 1. Selecting the load, adequate allowance must be made for impart condition
especially for bridges, before the loads are substituted in the combination
• 2. 6 and 7 are used to account for the possibilities of uplift to cover cases in which
tension forces develop, due to overturning moment but for tall building where high
lateral loads are present. In these combination dead loads are reduced by 10% to
take into account situations where they may have been overestimated
• 3. Wind and Earthquake loads are negative (-) that is compressive or the may be
tensile (intending to cause uplift). ± Signs indicated that compression and tension
because the loads can be horizontal or vertical. Equation 6 and 7 apply to wind and
earthquake load where the gravity counteract each other
NOTES FOR LRFD APPLICATIONS

• The magnitude of the loads D,L, Lr, etc. are obtain governing building codes or ASCE 7-
10. Wherever applicable , live loads used should be reduced values specified for large
floor areas, multistory building and so on.
LOAD COMBINATION (ASD)

• 1. D
• 2. D+L
• 3 D + (Lr, or S or R)
• 4 D + 0.75L + 0.75 (Lr or S or R)
• 5 D + (0.6 W or 0.7 E)
• 6a D + 0.75 L +0.75 (0.6 W) +0.75 (Lr or S or R)
• 6b D + 0.75 L + 0.75 (0.7 E) + 0.75S
• 7. 0.6 D + 0.6 W
• 8. 0.6 D + 0.7 E
LOAD COMBINATION –LRFD AND ASD

• Class example.
OBTAINING AN ACCEPTABLE LEVEL OF SAFETY

• The goal both method is to obtaining a a numerical margin between the resistance and load
that will result in a small chance of unacceptable structural respond.
• Note
• The factor of safety , Ω is usually greater than 1.0 for ASD Method. However, the nominal
strength for a given is divided by Ω and the result compared with the applicable service load
condition
• The resistance factor Ø in a number usually less then 1.0 for LRFD. The nominal strength for
a given limit states multiply by Ø and the result is compared with the factor load condition
OBTAINING AN ACCEPTABLE LEVEL OF SAFETY

• The relationship between the safety factor Ω and resistance factor Ø =1.0
• Relation generally
Ω = 1.5/Ø for example Ø=0.9 Ω= 1.5/0.9 = 1.67
Ø =0.75, Ω = 1.5/0.75 = 2.0
NOTE

• The load factors in the linear combination of loads in service groups do not have standard
symbols in the AISC Manual , the symbol
 ANALYSIS OF TENSION MEMBERS

• Tension members
• Structural elements that are subjected to axial tensile forces
• Are found in bridges, roof trusses, bracing system and situation where they are used as tie rod

• Nominal Strength of Tension member

• AISC (D2) states that the nominal strength of a tension member, P n, is to be the smaller of
values obtained by substituting into the following two expression:
 ANALYSIS OF TENSION MEMBERS

• For the limit state of yielding in the gross section ( which is intended to prevent excessive
elongation of the member)
• Pn = Fy * Ag ----------------- AISC Equation D2-1
• Øt Pn = Øt * Fy * Ag = Design tensile strength by LRFD ( Øt = 0.9)
• Pn/ Ωt = Fy*Ag/Ωt = allowable tensile strength for ASD (Ωt = 1.67)
 ANALYSIS OF TENSION MEMBERS

• For tensile rupture in the net section, as where the bolt or rivet holes are present
• Pn = Fu *Ae AISC Equation D2-2
• Øt Pn = Øt * Fu * Ae = design tensile rupture strength for LRFD (Øt = 0.75)
• Pn/Ωt = Fu*Ae/Ωt = allowable tensile rupture strength for ASD (Ωt = 2.00)

Where:
Fy and Fu = specified minimum yield and tensile stresses
(provided in Table 2-4 in AISC Manual )
Ag = gross area of the member
Ae = effective net area that can be assumed to resist tension at the section through the holes
An = the actual net area
DESIGN STRENGTH

• Tension members by reaching one of the two limits

• Excessive deformation
• Fracture

• Excessive Deformation
• To present excessive deformation initiated by yielding, the load on the cross section must be
small enough that the stress on the gross section is less than the yield stress Fy.

• Fracture
• To present fracture, initiated by yielding, the stress on the net section is less than the tensile
stress Fu.
Note that in each case P/A must be less than the limiting stress “ F”
DESIGN STRENGTH

• P/A ≤ F
• Thus the load P must be less than FA of P≤ FA `
• In this equation the left side is the applied load and the right is the strength
• For nominal strength in yielding is: Pn = Fy* Ag
• For nominal strength in fracture is: Pn = Fu * Ae

where Ae = effective area = net area or smaller cases

Note that for yielding factor Ø = 0.90
For fracture factor Ø = 0.75
DESIGN STRENGTH

• For equation
• ∑yi * Qi ≤ Ø Rn
• And for tensile member the equation can be written
• ∑yi * Qi ≤ Øt Rn or Pu ≤ Øt Pn
• Where Pu = combination of factor load and both conduction must be satisfied :
• 1. Pu ≤ 0.9 Fy * Ag
• 2. Pu ≤ 0.75 Fu * Ae and the smaller of the two is the design strength of the member
• The value of Fy, Fu and 0.75 Fu can be found in Table of the Manual.
EXAMPLE

• A bar 5x ½ of A36 steel is used as a tension member , It is connected to a gusset plate

with four 5/8 inch- diameter bolts as shown. Assume that the effective net area A e equals
the actual area net area and compute the design strength.
• Solution
• For yield of the gross section :
• Ag = 5 * ½ = 2.5 sq.in

• For nominal strength :

• Pn = Fy * Ag = 36 ksi ( 2.5 sq in.) = 90 kips

• For Design strength : Øt * Pn = 0.9 * 90 = 81.0 kips

EXAMPLE

• For Fracture of the net section

• An = Ag- Aholes
• Ahole = diameter + 1/8 = 5/8 + 1/8 = 6/8 = ¾
• Ae = 2.5 – ½ (3/4) * 2 bolts
= 2.5 – 0.75 =1.75 sq in (For this example , Ae does not always equal to An)

• For Nominal Strength

• Pn = Fu * Ae = 58 ksi ( from Table 2-2) *(1.75) = 101.5 kips

• For Design Strength

• Øt * Pn = 0.75 * (101.5)=76.10 kips controls the design strength =76.10 kips
EXAMPLE

• A single angle tension member, an L3.5 x 3.5 x 3/8 is connected to gusset plate with 7/8
inch-diameter bolts as shown . A36 steel is used. The service loads are 35 kips dead load
and 15 kips live load. Investigate this member for compliance with AISC Specification,
Assume that the effective net area is 85% of the computed net area.
• Solution
• Load Combination 1. Pu = 1.4 DL = 1.4 (35 kips) = 49 kips

• 2. Pu = 1.4 DL + 1.6 LL = 1.4(35) + 1.6(15) = 66 kips Pu = 66 kips

• Design Strength are : From the Manual Ag= 2.48 sq. in.
EXAMPLE

• Gross Section: Ag = 2.48 sq. in.

• Øt * Pn = Øt * Fy * Ag = 0.9* (36) * (2.48) = 80.4 kips

• Net Section: An = 2.48 sq. in. -3/8(7/8 +1/8) = 2.105 sq. in

Ae = 0.85 (2.105 sq. in) = 1.789 sq. in. 9(for this example
Øt*Pn = Øt * Fu * Ae = 0.75(58)*(1.789) = 77.8 kips controls

Answer – Pu < Ø * Pn ( 66 kips < 77. 8 kips) . The member is satisfactory

 NET AREA

• A = cross-sectional area of axially loaded tension member which is either

• Ag= gross area, original and unaltered
• An = net area , logically the area available to be stress in tension
may be visualized by imagining that the tension member (plate in this case) fractures along
the line. See Figure 2-1
An = Ag – ( area of holes)
= b*t – 2(dh * t)
Where: b= plate width
t = the plate thickness
dh = the hole diameter for analysis
= are punched to be 1/16” greater than the diameter of the bolt and the hole diameter are taken
as the fastener diameter plus 1/8”
EFFECTIVE NET AREA

• Ae = effective net area

• Ae is the function of the end connection of tension member
• Note among the several factors that influence the performance member is the manner in
which the are connected is most important
• The connections weakens the member and the measure of it influence is called the
JOINT EFFICIENCY
EFFECTIVE NET AREA

• Joint Efficiency is a function of the following

• Ductility of the material
• Fastener Spacing
• Stress concentration at holes
• Fabrication procedure
• And is known as SHEAR LAG
• Shear Lag –occurs when some elements of the cross section are not connected
• Example – one leg of the angle is connected to the gusset plate. In this the connected
part becomes overload or over stress while the unconnected part is not stress
EFFECTIVE NET AREA

• Note that this affects bolted and welded connections, the effective net area applies to the two
• For bolt connections the effective net area is
• Ae = U *An ( where An is the net area)
• For weld connection
• Ae = U * Ag
• Where the reduction factor U is given by
• U = 1- X/L ≤ 0.9 AISC Equation B3-2
• Where x- distance between the centroid of the connected area to the plane of the connection
• If a member has two symmetrically located plane of connection, X is measure from the centroid of the nearest one-half of the
area
• L- is the length of the connection
EFFECTIVE NET AREA

• The length, “L” the equation is the length of connection in the direction of the load
• The length “L” for bolt connection, it is measured from the center of the bolt at one end
of the connection to the center of the bolt at the other end.
• For weld, it is measured form one end of the connection to the other. And if there
segments of different length in the direction of the load , the longest segment is used.
EFFECTIVE NET AREA

• Based on the average value “x/l” for various type of bolts tension member connection
AISC Commentary to AISC B3 give values of the reduction factor “U” for bolt
connection in lieu of the calculate 1-x/l.
• The average “U “ for the bolt connection is based on two broad categories connections:
• those with two fastener per line in the direction of the applied load
• those with three fastener or more per line
EFFECTIVE NET AREA

• Only three different values are given, they correspond to the following conditions:
• 1. For W, M and S that have a width- to – depth ratio of at least ¾ (and tee shape
cut from them) and are connected through the flanges with at least three fasteners
per line in the direction of applied load U=0.9
• 2. For all other shape (including built-up shapes) with at lease three fasteners per
line U=0.85
• 3 For all members with only two fastener per line U= 0.75
EFFECTIVE NET AREA

• WELD CONNECTIONS
• Average “U” values can also be used for weld connection
• The average values for weld connections are follows:
• 1. For W, M or S shapes with a width-to-depth ratio of at least 2/3 (and tee shapes cut
from them) and connected at the flanges, U=0.90
• 2. For all other shape, U=0.85
EFFECTIVE NET AREA

• See page 41 of the text.

SPECIAL CASES FOR WELD CONNECTIONS

• For plates or bars connected by longitudinal weld at their ends as shown page 42
• Ae = U* Ag Where
• l = length of the pair of weld ≥ w
• W= distance between welds (which maybe taken as the width of the plate or bar)
U- Values
=1.0 For l ≥ 2w
=0.87 For 1.5w ≤ l < 2w
=0.75 For w≤ l < 1.5w
EFFECTIVE NET AREA

• AISC B3 also gives other special case for weld connections. For any member connected
by transverse weld alone.
• A
EXAMPLE

• Determine the effective net area for the tension member show 3.11
EXAMPLE

• Solution
• An = Ag –Aholes
• = 5.75 – ½(5/8+1/8)(2) =5.00 sq.in. Note that only one leg is connected so the net area must be
reduced.
• From the Manual Part 1, x= 1.68 for L6 X 6 X ½
• Length of the connection is L=3 + 3= 6 inches
• U = 1-(1.68/6) = 0.720 < 0.9
• Ae = U * An = 0.72 * 5 = 3.6 sq in.
• The average value of “U” can from the Commentary can be used . Because this shape is not W,
M, S or tee and has more than two bolts in the direction of the applied load the reduction factor
U=0.85 and Ae = 0.85 * (5) = 4.25 sq.in.
EXAMPLE

• Either value of “U” is accepted but

• Ae = 3.6 sq. in is more accurate than Ae = 4.245 sq. in.
EXAMPLE

• If the tension member of the last Example is weld as shown in the figure 3.12, determine
the effective area.
• Solution
• As in the last Example , only part of the cross section is connected, and a reduced
effective net area must be used. The connection is made with a combination of
longitudinal and transverse welds, so it not of the special case for welded member
• U = 1-(x/l) = 1-(1.68/5.5) = 0.695<0.9
• Ae = U*Ag = 0.695 *(5.75) =4.00 sq.in.
STAGGERED FASTENERS

• Sometimes due to space limitation bolts can staggered

• Figure 1.13a Sometimes space limitations, such as a limit

on dimension a in Figure 1.13a

Sometimes staggered fastener are required by the geometry
of a connection as shown in Figure 1.13b
In either case, any cross section passing through holes
Will pass through fewer holes than if the fasteners are not
staggered
STAGGERED FASTENERS

• If the amount of the stagger is small enough, the influence of an offset hole may be felt by the
nearby cross section, and the fracture along an inclined path such as abcd in figure1.13c is possible.
In such case , the relationship f= P/A does not apply and the stress on the inclined portion b-c are a
combination of tensile and shearing stress.
• Several approximate methods have been

proposed to account for the effects of staggered holes.

Cochran (1922) suggested the use of a net
area equals to the product of the plate
thickness and the net width
STAGGERED FASTENERS

• The area is computed as follows:

• Decide on a possible failure line to investigate and let the net width equal to the gross
with minus the quantity
• d’ = d – (s)^2 / 4g for each staggered hole in the chain , minus ‘d’ for each staggered hole.
This expression: d is the hole diameter
• s (pitch) is the spacing of two adjacent holes in the direction parallel to the load
• g (gage) is the transverse spacing.
• AISC Specification uses this same approximation, but slightly different.
STAGGERED FASTENERS

• Section B2 requires that the net width be computed by substracting the sum of the hole
diameters from the gross width and adding , for each inclinded line the chain , the
quantity (s)^2/4g, That is
• Wn = Wg - ∑d + ∑ (s)^2/4g

• When more than one failure pattern is conceivable, all possibilities should investigated , and
the one corresponding to the smallest load capacity should be used.
• Note that this method will not accommodated failure patterns with the line parallel to the
applied load
EXAMPLE

• Compute the smallest net area for the plate shown in Figure 3.14. he holes are for 1-inch
diameter bolts.
• Solution:
• 1. The effective hole diameter = 1+ 1/8 = 1 1/8. For line abde
• Wn = 16- 3(1.125) = 13.75 inches
• For line abcde
• Wn = 16-3(1.125) + 2(3)^2/4(5) = 13.52 inches Controls
• An = t * Wn = 0.75(13.52 in) = 10.14 in sq.
IMPORTANT NOTE

• As each fastener resists and equal share of the load ( assumption used in the design of
simple connection), different potential failures lines may be subjected to different loads
• For example , line abcde in Figure 3.14 must resists the full load, where as ijfh will be
subjected to 8/11 of the applied load. The reason is 3/11 of the load will have been
transferred from the member before ijfh receives any load.
• When lines of the fastener are present in both legs of an angle , and the fastener in these
lines are staggered with respect to one another , the net area is found by first “unfolding“
the angle to obtain an equivalent plate. This plate is then analyzed like any other.
• The unfolding is done along the middle surface, giving the gross width of the plate that
equals the sum of the leg lengths minus the angle thickness.
 IMPORTANT NOTE

• AISC B2 specifies that any gage line crossing the heel of the angle be reduced by an
amount that equals the angle thickness.
• Thus the distance “g” in Figure 3.15 to be used in the (s)^2/4g terms would be 3+2-1/2 =
41/2 inchs
EXAMPLE

• Find the design tensile strength of the angle show in G=Figure 3.16, A36 steel used , and
the holes are for 7/8 in- diameter bolts.
• Solution
• Compute the net width
• Wg = 8 + 6 -1/2 = 13.5 inches
• Effective hole diameter = 7/8+1/8 =1,0 inch
EXAMPLE

• For line abdf

• Wg = 13.5 – 2(1) = 11.5 in but = 13.5 – 3(1) = 10.5 inch
• For line abceg
• Wg = 13.5 - 3(1) + (1.5)^2/4(2.5) = 10.73 inches
• Note: Because 1/10 of the load has been transferred from the member by the fastener at
“d” this potential failure line must resist only 9/10 of the load. Therefore the net width of
10.73 inch should be multiplied by 10/9 to obtain a net width that can compared wuth
those line that resist the full load. Used Wn = 10.73(10/9)
EXAMPLE

• For line abcdeg

• gcd = 3 + 2.25 – 0.5 = 4.75 inch
• Wg = 13.5 – 4(1) + (1.5)^2/4(2.5) + (1.5)^2/4(4.75) + (1.5)^2/4(3) = 10.03 in controls
• An = t*(wn) = 0.5 * 10.03 = 5.015 sq in
• Both leags of the angle are connected therefore Ae = An = 5.015 sq inch
• The design strength based on Fracture Øt * Pn = 0.75 * Fu Ag = 0.75 (58)(5.015) = 218
kips
• Design strength based on yielding Øt *Pn = 0.90 * Fy Ag = 0.90 * (36) (5,015) = 219
kips
BLOCK SHEAR
BLOCK SHEAR

• In this situation the assumption is that the failure shall be either “ yielding and fracture”.
• Fracture on shear surface is accompanied by yielding on the tension surface
• Both contribute to the total strength and the resistance to block shear will be the sum of
the two surfaces.
SHEAR BLOCK

• For Normal strength in tension is Fu *Ant

• For Yield is Fy * Agt
• Where Ant and Agt are the net and gross areas along the tensional surface (b-c)

• However the shear yield stress and ultimate stress is 60% of the values for tension, then
the two : Fracture = 0.60 * Fu *Ant
• Shear Yield = 0.60 Fy * Agt
SHEAR BLOCK

• There are two possible failure modes.

• Shear yield and tension fracture : the design strength

• Ø*Rn = Ø [ 0.6 Fy Agv + Fu * Ant ] AISC Equation J4-3a

• For Shear fracture and tension yield : the design strength

• Ø*Rn = Ø [ 0.6 Fu Anv + Fy * Agt] AISC Equation J4-3b
• Where Anv and Agv are the net and gross area along the shear surface (ab- to be drawn)
• In both equation Ø = 0.75. Because the limit state is fracture , the control equation will be the one
that has the larger fracture.
EXAMPLE ON SHEAR BLOCK

• Check the block-shear design strength of the tension member show in Figure 3.218 holes
are for 7/8” diameter bolts and A36 steel is used.
• SOLUTION
• Agv = 3/8 * (7.5 in) = 2.812 sq. in
• And since there are 2.5 holes diameter
• Anv = 3/8* [ 7.5-2.5 (1.0)] = 1.875 sq in.
• The tension area are :
EXAMPLE CONT’D

• Agt = 3/8*(1.5) = 0.5625 sq. in

• Ant = 3/8[ 1.5- 0.5(1.0)] = 0.375 sq in
• Using the AISC Equations
• Ø*Rn = Ø [ 0.6 Fy Agv + Fu * Ant ] AISC Equation J4-3a
• Ø*Rn = 0.75 [ 0.6 (36) (2.812) + 58 * 0.375 ] = 61.9 kips

• Using the AISC Equations

• Ø*Rn = Ø [ 0.6 Fu Anv + Fy * Agt]
• Ø*Rn = 0.75 [ 0.6 (58) (1.875) + 36 * 0.5625 ] = 64.1 kips
• The second equations express the largest fracture terms involving ‘Fu’ so it controls = 64.1 kips.