Chapter 9

Nervous System

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 Lesson 9.1: Nervous System
Learning Objectives (1 of 2)
1. List the organs and divisions of the nervous system and
describe the generalized functions of the system as a
whole.
2. Identify the major types of cells in the nervous system
and discuss the functions of each.
3. Identify the anatomical components of a reflex arc and
explain its function.
4. Explain the mechanisms of transmission of a nerve
impulse along a nerve fiber and across a synapse.

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 Lesson 9.1: Nervous System
Learning Objectives (2 of 2)
5. Identify the major anatomical components of
the brain and spinal cord and briefly comment
on the functions of each.
6. Compare and contrast cranial and spinal
nerves.
7. Discuss the anatomical and functional
characteristics of the two divisions of the
autonomic nervous system.

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 Organization of the Nervous
System
 Central nervous system (CNS)
 Brain
 Spinal cord
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
 All nerves
 Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

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 Cells of the Nervous System
(1 of 2)
 Neurons
 Neuron structure: Each neuron consists of three main parts
• Cell body of neuron
• Dendrites: Branching projections that conduct impulses to cell body
of neuron
• Axon: Elongated projection that conducts impulses away from cell
body of neuron
 Types of neurons: Classified according to function
• Sensory (afferent) neurons: Conduct impulses to the spinal cord and
brain
• Motor (efferent) neurons: Conduct impulses away from brain and
spinal cord to muscles and glands
• Interneurons: Conduct impulses from sensory neurons to motor
neurons or among a network of interneurons; also known as central
or connecting neurons

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 Neuron

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 Cells of the Nervous System
(2 of 2)
 Glia (neuroglia)
 Support cells, bringing the cells of nervous tissue together
structurally and functionally
 Three main types of glial cells of the CNS
• Astrocytes: Star-shaped cells that anchor small blood
vessels to neurons
• Microglia: Small cells that move in inflamed brain tissue
carrying on phagocytosis
• Oligodendrocytes: Form myelin sheaths on axons in the CNS
 Schwann cells form myelin sheaths on axons of the PNS

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 Central Glia

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 Nerves and Tracts
 Nerve: Bundle of peripheral axons
 Tract: Bundle of central axons
 White matter: Tissue composed primarily of myelinated axons
(nerves or tracts)
 Gray matter: Tissue composed primarily of cell bodies and
unmyelinated fibers
 Nerve coverings: Fibrous connective tissue
 Endoneurium: Surrounds individual fibers within a nerve
 Perineurium: Surrounds a group (fascicle) of nerve fibers
 Epineurium: Surrounds the entire nerve

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 The Nerve

Courtesy Dr. Richard Kessel, Professor of Biological Sciences, University of Iowa,

Iowa City.

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 Nerve Signals
 Reflex arcs
 Nerve impulses are conducted from receptors
to effectors over neuron pathways or reflex arcs;
conduction by a reflex arc results in a reflex
(i.e., contraction by a muscle or secretion
by a gland)
 The simplest reflex arcs are two-neuron arcs, consisting of
sensory neurons synapsing in the spinal cord with motor
neurons
 Three-neuron arcs consist of sensory neurons synapsing
in the spinal cord with interneurons that synapse with
motor neurons (Figure 9-5)

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 Knee-Jerk Reflex

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 Nerve Impulse (1 of 4)
 Definition of a nerve impulse
 Self-propagating wave of electrical disturbance that
travels along the surface of a neuron membrane (also
called action potential)
 Mechanism of a nerve impulse
 At rest, the neuron's membrane is slightly positive on
the outside—polarized—from a slight excess of
sodium ions (Na+) on the outside
 A stimulus triggers the opening of Na+ channels in the
plasma membrane of the neuron

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 Nerve Impulse (2 of 4)
 Mechanism of a nerve impulse
 Inward movement of Na+ depolarizes the membrane
by making the inside more positive than the outside at
the stimulated point; this depolarization is a nerve
impulse (action potential)
 The stimulated section of membrane immediately
repolarizes, but by that time, the depolarization has
already triggered the next section of membrane to
depolarize, thus propagating a wave of electrical
disturbances (depolarizations) all the way down the
membrane

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 Nerve Signals (3 of 4)
 The synapse: The place where impulses are transmitted
from one neuron to another (the postsynaptic neuron)
(Figure 9-8)
 Synapse made of three structures
 Synaptic knob
 Synaptic cleft
 Plasma membrane
 Neurotransmitters
 Bind to specific receptor molecules in the membrane of a
postsynaptic neuron, opening ion channels and thereby
stimulating impulse conduction by the membrane

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 Nerve Signals (4 of 4)
 Neurotransmitters: Chemicals by which neurons
communicate
 Acetylcholine (ACh)
 Catecholamines: Norepinephrine, dopamine, and
serotonin
 Endorphins
 Enkephalins
 Nitric oxide (NO)
 Other compounds

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Components of a Synapse

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 Central Nervous System
 Divisions of the brain
 Brainstem
• Medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain
 Cerebellum
 Diencephalon
• Hypothalamus, thalamus, and pineal gland
 Cerebrum
 Spinal cord
 Coverings and fluid spaces

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 Major Regions of the
Central Nervous System

From Vidic B, Suarez FR: Photographic atlas of the human body, St

Louis, 1984, Mosby.

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 Brainstem
 Consists of three parts of brain, named in ascending
order
 Medulla oblongata
 Pons
 Midbrain
 Structure
 White matter with bits of gray matter scattered through it
 Functions
 All three parts of brainstem conduct impulses to the higher
parts of the brain

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 Cerebellum
 Structure
 Second largest part of the human brain
 Gray matter outer layer is thin but highly folded, forming a large
surface area for processing information
 Arbor vitae: Internal, treelike network of white matter tracts
 Functions
 Helps control muscle contractions to produce coordinated
movements for maintaining balance, moving smoothly, and
sustaining normal postures
 Variety of additional coordinating effects, assisting the cerebrum
and other regions of the brain

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 Diencephalon (1 of 2)
 Hypothalamus
 Consists mainly of the posterior pituitary gland, pituitary stalk,
and gray matter
 Acts as the major center for controlling the ANS; therefore, it
helps control the functioning of most internal organs
 Controls hormone secretion by anterior and posterior pituitary
glands; therefore, it indirectly helps control hormone secretion by
most other endocrine glands
 Contains centers for controlling body temperature, appetite,
wakefulness, and pleasure

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 Diencephalon (2 of 2)
 Thalamus
 Dumbbell-shaped mass of gray matter extending toward each
cerebral hemisphere
 Relays sensory impulses to cerebral cortex sensory areas
 In some way produces the emotions of pleasantness or
unpleasantness associated with sensations
 Pineal gland (pineal body)
 Small body resembling a pine nut behind the thalamus
 Adjusts output of “time-keeping hormone” melatonin in response
to changing levels of external light (sunlight and moonlight)

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 Cerebrum
 Largest part of the human brain
 Outer layers of gray matter are the cerebral cortex; made up
of lobes; composed mainly of dendrites and cell bodies of
neurons
 Interior of the cerebrum composed mainly of white matter
 Tracts: Nerve fibers arranged in bundles
 Basal nuclei: Islands of gray matter regulate automatic
movements and posture
 Functions of the cerebrum
 Mental processes of all types, including sensations,
consciousness, memory, and voluntary control of movements

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 The Cerebrum

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 Spinal Cord
 Columns of white matter, composed of bundles of
myelinated nerve fibers, form the outer portion of the H-
shaped core of the spinal cord; bundles of axons called
tracts
 Interior composed of gray matter made up mainly of
neuron dendrites and cell bodies
 Spinal cord tracts provide two-way conduction paths:
Ascending and descending
 Spinal cord functions as the primary center for all spinal
cord reflexes; sensory tracts conduct impulses to the
brain, and motor tracts conduct impulses from the brain

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Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves

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Coverings and Fluid Spaces of the
Brain and Spinal Cord
 Coverings
 Cranial bones and vertebrae
 Cerebral and spinal meninges
• Dura mater
• Pia mater
• Arachnoid mater
 Fluid spaces
 Subarachnoid spaces of meninges
 Central canal inside cord
 Ventricles in brain

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Spinal Cord and Its Coverings

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 Peripheral Nervous System
 Cranial nerves
 Twelve pairs: Attached to undersurface of the brain
 Connect brain with the neck and structures in the thorax
and abdomen
 Spinal nerves
 Thirty-one pairs: Contain dendrites of sensory neurons and
axons of motor neurons
 Conduct impulses necessary for sensations and voluntary
movements
 Dermatome: Skin surface area supplied by a single cranial
or spinal nerve

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 Cranial Nerves

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 Autonomic Nervous System
 Functional anatomy
 Autonomic conduction paths
 Sympathetic division
 Parasympathetic division
 Autonomic neurotransmitters
 Autonomic nervous system as a whole

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 Functional Anatomy
 Consists of motor neurons that conduct impulses from the CNS to
cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glandular epithelial tissue;
regulates the body’s automatic or involuntary functions
 Preganglionic autonomic neurons
 Conduct impulses from spinal cord or brainstem to an autonomic
ganglion
 Postganglionic neurons
 Conduct from autonomic ganglia to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and
glandular epithelial tissue
 Autonomic or visceral effectors
 Tissues to which autonomic neurons conduct impulses
 Sympathetic and parasympathetic systems

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Innervation of Major Target Organs
by the Autonomic Nervous System

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 Autonomic Conduction Paths
 Consist of two-neuron relays (i.e., preganglionic
neurons from the CNS to autonomic ganglia,
synapses, postganglionic neurons from ganglia
to visceral effectors)
 In contrast, somatic motor neurons conduct all
the way from the CNS to somatic effectors with
no intervening synapses

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 Sympathetic Division (1 of 2)
 Structure
 Dendrites and cell bodies of sympathetic preganglionic
neurons are located in the gray matter of the thoracic and
upper lumbar segments of the spinal cord
 Axons leave the spinal cord in the anterior roots of spinal
nerves, extend to sympathetic or collateral ganglia, and
synapse with several postganglionic neurons whose axons
extend to spinal or autonomic nerves to terminate in
visceral effectors
 A chain of sympathetic ganglia is in front of and at each
side of the spinal column

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 Sympathetic Division (2 of 2)
 Functions
 Serves as the emergency or stress system,
controlling visceral effectors during strenuous
exercise and when strong emotions (anger, fear, hate,
or anxiety) are triggered
 Group of changes induced by sympathetic control is
called the fight-or-flight response

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 Parasympathetic Division
 Structure
 Parasympathetic preganglionic neurons
• Have dendrites and cell bodies in the gray matter of the brainstem
and the sacral segments of the spinal cord
• Terminate in parasympathetic ganglia located in the head and the
thoracic and abdominal cavities close to visceral effectors
• Each parasympathetic preganglionic neuron synapses with
postganglionic neurons to only one effector
 Functions
 Dominates control of many visceral effectors under normal,
everyday conditions
 Counterbalances sympathetic function

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 Autonomic Neurotransmitters
 Cholinergic fibers
 Preganglionic axons of parasympathetic and sympathetic
systems and parasympathetic postganglionic axons
release acetylcholine
 Adrenergic fibers
 Axons of sympathetic postganglionic neurons release
norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

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 Autonomic Nervous System as a
Whole
 Regulates the body’s automatic functions in ways that
maintain or quickly restore homeostasis
 Many visceral effectors are doubly innervated (i.e., they
receive fibers from parasympathetic and sympathetic
divisions and are influenced in opposite ways by the two
divisions)

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