 IMPORTANT TERMS:

 Histology - study of tissues. Term was first used in 1847.

 Derived from the Greek word histos meaning "tissue",
and logos meaning "study of".
 The study of the structure of tissues morphological
(cellular and sub-cellular) and chemical (molecular -
storage, informational, and enzymatic molecules, as well
as their antigenic components) sense.
 tissue - from French word tissu meaning weave or texture.
Initially referred to layers of the body that had different
textures as identified by the frenchman Bichat during his
dissections of human bodies (late 18th century). We now know
that tissues are formed by organized groups of cells and non-
living materials that these cells synthesize and secrete.

 Cell - from the Latin word cella meaning small room. This
term was first used in a biological sense by Robert Hooke

 Cell Theory - developed independently by both Schwann and

Schleiden in 1832. This theory stated that all living organisms
are constructed of small sub-units called cells.
As discussed above, the word tissue was first used in
an anatomical sense by the French anatomist Bichat
during the late 18th century. Bichat dissected bodies
as part of his anatomical studies and was impressed by
the fact that the various layers and structures that he
peeled apart during his dissections had different
weaves and textures.
 He called these layers tissues and developed a
classification of these tissues that was based on their
different textures. Bichat’s classification scheme
contained 20 or more different types of tissues.
It's important to realize that all his work was done without
a microscope because, even though this instrument existed
during Bichat's years of study, he refused to use it. Other
scientists of that period made use of the microscope that
had been much improved by the efforts of the Dutch
scientist Leeuwenhoek, to delve more deeply into the
nature of the weaves or tissues that Bichat had described.
 This has led to a better understanding of tissues, their
structure and function. We now know that all the tissues
of the body are formed from 4 basic types of tissue.

 a. epithelial tissues
 b. connective tissues
 c. muscle tissues
 d. nervous tissues
Tissues
 Cells work together in functionally related groups
called tissues
 Types of tissues:
1. Epithelial – lining and covering
2. Connective – support
3. Muscle – movement
4. Nervous – control
Epithelial Tissue –
General Characteristics & Functions
Covers a body surface or lines a body cavity
Forms most glands
Functions of epithelium
Protection
Absorption, secretion, and ion transport
Filtration
Forms slippery surfaces
 Special Characteristics of Epithelia
Cellularity
 cells are in close contact with each other with little or no intercellular
space between them
Specialized contacts
 may have junctions for both attachment and communication
Polarity
 epithelial tissues always have an apical and basal surface
Support by connective tissue
 at the basal surface, both the epithelial tissue and the connective tissue
contribute to the basement membrane
Avascular
 nutrients must diffuse
Innervated (supply nerves to a body organ to act)
Regeneration
 epithelial tissues have a high capacity for regeneration
Special Characteristics of Epithelia
Lateral Surface Features
Factors holding epithelial cells together
Adhesion proteins link plasma membranes of adjacent
cells
Contours of adjacent cell membranes
Special cell junctions
 Tight Junctions
 Adherens Junctions

 Desmosomes
Lateral Surface Features – Cell Junctions
Tight junctions (zona occludens) – close off
intercellular space
Found at apical region of most epithelial types
Some proteins in plasma membrane of adjacent cells
are fused
Prevent molecules from passing between cells of
epithelial tissue
Lateral Surface Features – Cell Junctions
Adherens junctions (zonula adherens) – anchoring
junction
Transmembrane linker proteins attach to actin
microfilaments of the cytoskeleton and bind adjacent
cells
Along with tight junctions, form the tight junctional
complex around apical lateral borders of epithelial
tissues
Lateral Surface Features – Cell Junctions
Desmosomes – two disc-like plaques connected
across intercellular space
Plaques of adjoining cells are joined by proteins called
cadherins
Proteins interdigitate into extracellular space
Intermediate filaments insert into plaques from
cytoplasmic side
Desmosome
Lateral Surface Features – Cell Junctions
Gap junctions – passageway between two adjacent
cells
Let small molecules move directly between neighboring
cells
Cells are connected by hollow cylinders of protein
Basal Feature: The Basal Lamina
Noncellular supporting sheet between the
epithelium and the connective tissue
Consists of proteins secreted by the epithelial cells
Functions:
Acts as a selective filter, determining which molecules
from capillaries enter the epithelium
Acts as scaffolding along which regenerating epithelial
cells can migrate
Basal lamina and reticular layers of the underlying
connective tissue deep to it form the basement
membrane
Epithelial Tissues
Classifications & Naming of Epithelia
First name of tissue indicates number of layers
Simple – one layer of cells

Stratified – more than one

layer of cells
Classification & Naming of Epithelia
Last name of tissue describes shape of cells
Squamous – cells wider
than tall (plate or “scale” like)

Cuboidal – cells are as wide

as tall, as in cubes

Columnar – cells are taller than

they are wide, like columns
Naming Epithelia
Naming the epithelia includes both the layers
(first) and the shape of the cells (second)
i.e. stratified cuboidal epithelium
The name may also include any accessory
structures
Goblet cells
Cilia
Keratin
Special epithelial tissues (don’t follow naming
convention)
Psuedostratified
Transitional
Simple Squamous Epithelium
Description
single layer of flat cells with disc-shaped nuclei
Special types
Endothelium (inner covering)
 slick lining of hollow organs
Mesothelium (middle covering)
 Lines peritoneal, pleural, and pericardial cavities
 Covers visceral organs of those cavities
Simple Squamous Epithelium
Function
Passage of materials by passive diffusion and filtration
Secretes lubricating substances in serosae
Location
Renal corpuscles
Alveoli of lungs
Lining of heart, blood and lymphatic vessels
Lining of ventral body cavity (serosae)
Simple Squamous Epithelium

Simple
squamous lining
the walls of the
capillary
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Description
single layer of cube-like cells with large, spherical
central nuclei
Function
secretion and absorption
Location
kidney tubules, secretory
portions of small glands,
ovary & thyroid follicles
Simple Columnar Epithelium
Description
single layer of column-shaped (rectangular) cells with
oval nuclei
 Some bear cilia at their apical surface
 May contain goblet cells

Function
Absorption; secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other
substances
Ciliated type propels mucus or reproductive cells by
ciliary action
Simple Columnar Epithelium
Location
Non-ciliated form
 Lines digestive tract,
gallbladder, ducts of
some glands
Ciliated form
 Lines small bronchi,
uterine tubes, uterus
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
Description
All cells originate at basement membrane
Only tall cells reach the apical surface
May contain goblet cells and bear cilia
Nuclei lie at varying heights within cells
 Gives false impression of stratification

Function
secretion of mucus; propulsion of mucus by cilia
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
Locations
Non-ciliated type
 Ducts of male reproductive
tubes
 Ducts of large glands

Ciliated variety
 Lines trachea and most of
upper respiratory tract
Stratified Epithelia
Contain two or more layers of cells
Regenerate from below
Major role is protection
Are named according to the shape of cells at apical
layer
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Description
Many layers of cells – squamous in shape
Deeper layers of cells appear cuboidal or columnar
Thickest epithelial tissue – adapted for protection
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Specific types
Keratinized – contain the protective protein keratin
 Surface cells are dead and full of keratin
Non-keratinized – forms moist lining of body openings
Function
Protects underlying tissues in
areas subject to abrasion
Location
Keratinized – forms epidermis
Non-keratinized – forms lining of
esophagus, mouth, and vagina
Transitional Epithelium
Description
Basal cells usually cuboidal
or columnar
Superficial cells dome-
shaped or squamous
Function
stretches and permits
distension of urinary
bladder
Location
Lines ureters, urinary
bladder and part of urethra
Apical specialization
1. Keratinization: Layer of flattened, dead
cells
- Forming protective layer against force , friction,
desiccation
- Areas exposed to repeated and prolonged
- exposure to force, friction, and air
- 2. Microvilli: Short, numerous cellular
projections
- Increasing surface area of the luminal border
 - Areas that require large amount of absorption and
secretion

3. Cilia: Specialized cellular projections with

motile mechanisms
- Generating movements to create current
- Areas that require movement of fluids over the
epithelium

4. Stereo cilia: Long, immotile cellular projections

-Increasing surface area for absorption, serving as
mechanoreceptors
- Epididymis, special sensory epithelium
Glandular Epithelium
Ducts carry products of exocrine glands to epithelial
surface
Include the following diverse glands
Mucus-secreting glands
Sweat and oil glands
Salivary glands
Liver and pancreas
Mammary glands
May be: unicellular or multicellular
Unicellular Exocrine Glands
(The Goblet Cell)
Goblet cells produce mucin
Mucin + water  mucus
Protects and lubricates many
internal body surfaces
Multicellular Exocrine Glands
Classified by structure (branching &
shape) of duct
Can also be classified by mode or
type of secretion
Merocrine secretion – secretory vesicles
released via exocytosis (saliviary
glands)
Apocrine secretion – apical portion of
the cell is lost, cytoplasm + secretory
product (mammary glands)
Holocrine secretion – entire cell is
destroyed during secretion (sebaceous
gland)
2. Simple tubular: Test-tube-shaped
glands
a. Secretory unit: Simple columnar Epithelium
2. Mucous Secretion
Location ; Small and
large intestine
3. Simple branched tubular: More than one test tube-
shaped gland sharing a common duct or opening into
lumen
- Secretory units: Simple columnar epithelium
-Mostly mucous secretion
- Stomach pylorus
 Simple coiled tubular: Long, convoluted gland
Secretory unit: Simple cuboidal to stratified
Cuboidal epithelium; larger, pale staining cells
Duct: Stratified cuboidal epithelium; smaller, darker
staining cells
Sweat secretion
Skin sweat glands
5. Simple acinar: Single spherical gland draining into a
short duct
- Secretory unit: Simple cuboidal to columnar
epithelium
- Mucous secretion
- Glands of Litre near
- penile urethra
Simple branched acinar: More than one spherical
gland draining into a common duct
Secretory unit: Stratified cuboidal epithelium, cells
are large and vacuolated
- Sebum secretion
- Skin sebaceous glands
Compound tubular: More than one tubular gland and more
than one duct opening into lumen
- Secretory unit: Simple columnar epithelium,
pale-staining cells
-Ducts: Simple columnar epithelium, dark-staining cells
-Mucous secretion
- Brunner glands of
duodenum
Compound acinar: More than one spherical
gland, more than one duct of varying size
- Watery proteinaceous
Secretion
-Parotid glands, pancreas, mammary glands
Secretory units: Simple cuboidal to pyramidal,
mostly serous secreting cells filled with
Secretory granules
j. Ducts: Simple cuboidal, simple columnar,
Stratified columnar
9. Compound tubulo-acinar:More than one tubular and
spherical gland, more than
one duct of varying size
k. Simple columnar secretory units
Simple cuboidal secretory units
m. Demilunes: Simple columnar tubular glands capped at
the end by the hemispherical simple
Cuboidal acinar gland
n. Ducts: Simple cuboidal, simple columnar,
Stratified columnar
Mucous and serous secretion
Submandibular and sublingual salivary glands
May also be classified by types of secretions
from exocrine glands
Serous
mostly water but also contains some enzymes
Ex. parotid glands, pancreas
Mucous
mucus secretions
Ex. sublingual glands, goblet cells
Mixes
serous & mucus combined
Ex. submandibular gland
Additional Concepts
• Endothelium: Simple squamous epithelium that lines
the lumen of the vessels.
• Mesothelium: Simple squamous epithelium that lines
the serous
membrane of the body cavities.
• Respiratory epithelium: Ciliated pseudostratified
columnar epithelium
that lines most of the conducting portions of the
respiratory system.
Turnover: Epithelia have the highest turnover rate out of
the four
basic tissue types. The turnover rate varies depending on
location and function; skin epithelium turns over every
30 days and
colonic mucosal epithelium turns over every week. With
the high turnover rate, susceptibility for acquiring
mutations and developing
neoplasm is also the highest out of the four tissue types
Lining versus glandular epithelium:
• Lining epithelia: Cover the surface of the skin or body
cavity
that are in direct contact with the luminal space
Glandular epithelia: Involved in production of secretions
released into the lumen or nearby blood vessels.
Glandular epithelia are not in direct contact with luminal
space and are embedded in connective tissues, separated
by the basement membrane.
Connective Tissues
Connective Tissue
Most diverse and abundant tissue
Main classes
Connective tissue proper
Blood – Fluid connective tissue
Cartilage
Bone tissue
Supporting connective tissues
Components of connective tissue:
Cells (varies according to tissue)
Matrix
 Protein fibers (varies according to tissue)
 Ground substance (varies according to tissue)

Common embryonic origin – mesenchyme

Classes of Connective Tissue
Connective Tissue Proper - Structures
Variety of cells, fibers & grounds substances
 Types of depend on use
Cells found in connective tissue proper
 Fibroblasts
 Macrophages, lymphocytes (antibody producing cells)
 Adipocytes (fat cells)
 Mast cells
 Stem cells
Fibers:
 Collagen – very strong & abundant, long & straight
 Elastic – branching fibers with a wavy appearance (when relaxed)
 Reticular – form a network of fibers that form a supportive
framwork in soft organs (i.e. Spleen & liver)
Ground substance:
 Along with fibers, fills the extracellular space
 Ground substance helps determine functionality of tissue
Connective Tissue Proper - Classifications
Loose Connective Tissue
Areolar
Reticular
Adipose
Dense Connective Tissue
Regular
Irregular
Elastic
Areolar Connective Tissue
Description
Gel-like matrix with:
 all three fiber types (collagen, reticular, elastic) for support
 Ground substance is made up by glycoproteins also made and
secreted by the fibroblasts.
Cells – fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, white
blood cells, adipocytes
Highly vascular tissue
Function
Wraps and cushions organs
Holds and conveys tissue fluid
Important role in inflammation
Main battlefield in fight against infection
Areolar Connective Tissue
Location
Widely distributed under epithelia
Packages organs
Surrounds capillaries
Adipose Tissue
Description
 Closely packed adipocytes
 Have nucleus pushed to one
side by fat droplet Function
 Provides reserve food fuel
 Insulates against heat loss
 Supports and protects organs
Location
 Under skin
 Around kidneys
 Behind eyeballs, within
abdomen and in breasts
Reticular Connective Tissue
Description – network of
reticular fibers in loose
ground substance
Function – form a soft,
internal skeleton (stroma)
– supports other cell types
Location – lymphoid
organs
 Lymph nodes, bone marrow,
and spleen
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
Description
 Primarily irregularly arranged
collagen fibers
 Some elastic fibers and
fibroblasts
Function
 Withstands tension
 Provides structural strength
Location
 Dermis of skin
 Submucosa of digestive tract
 Fibrous capsules of joints and
organs
Dense Regular Connective Tissue
Description
Primarily parallel collagen fibers
Fibroblasts and some elastic fibers
Poorly vascularized
Function
Attaches muscle to bone
Attaches bone to bone
Withstands great stress in
one direction
Location
Tendons and ligaments
Aponeuroses
Fascia around muscles
Cartilage
Characteristics:
Firm, flexible tissue
Contains no blood vessels or
nerves
Matrix contains up to 80%
water
Cell type – chondrocyte
Types:
Hyaline
Elastic
Fibrocartilage
Hyaline Cartilage
Description
Imperceptible collagen fibers (hyaline = glassy)
Chodroblasts produce matrix
Chondrocytes lie in lacunae
Function
Supports and reinforces
Resilient cushion
Resists repetitive stress
Location
Ends of long bones
Costal cartilage of ribs
Cartilages of nose,
trachea, and larynx Location
Elastic Cartilage
Description
Similar to hyaline cartilage
More elastic fibers in matrix
Function
Maintains shape of structure
Allows great flexibility
Location
Supports external ear
Epiglottis
Fibrocartilage
Description
Matrix similar, but less firm
than hyaline cartilage
Thick collagen fibers
predominate
Function
Tensile strength and ability
to absorb compressive
shock
Location
Intervertebral discs
Pubic symphysis
Discs of knee joint
Bone Tissue
Function
Supports and protects
organs
Provides levers and
attachment site for
muscles
Stores calcium and other
minerals
Stores fat
Marrow is site for blood
cell formation
Location
Bones
Blood Tissue
Description
red and white blood cells
in a fluid matrix
Function
transport of respiratory
gases, nutrients, and wastes
Location
within blood vessels
Characteristics
An atypical connective tissue
Consists of cells surrounded by fluid matrix
Covering and Lining Membranes
Combine epithelial tissues and connective tissues
Cover broad areas within body
Consist of epithelial sheet plus underlying connective
tissue
Types of Membranes
Cutaneous membrane – skin
Mucous membrane
 Lines hollow organs that open to surface of body
 An epithelial sheet underlain with layer of lamina propria
Serous membrane – slippery membranes
 Simple squamous epithelium lying on areolar connective tissue
 Line closed cavities
 Pleural, peritoneal, and pericardial cavities
Synovial membranes – lining joint cavities
 Loose connective (areolar) + simple squamous epithelium
 Secretes fluid (synovial fluid) which lubricates, protects & cushions
joint structures
Muscle Tissue
Types
Skeletal muscle tissue
Cardiac muscle tissue
Smooth muscle tissue
Skeletal Muscle Tissue
Characteristics
 Long, cylindrical cells
 Multinucleate
 Obvious striations
Function
 Voluntary movement
 Manipulation of
environment
 Facial expression
Location
 Skeletal muscles attached to bones (occasionally to skin)
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
Function
Contracts to propel blood into circulatory system
Characteristics
Branching cells
Uni-nucleate
Intercalated discs
Location
Occurs in walls of heart
Smooth Muscle Tissue
Characteristics
 Spindle-shaped cells with
central nuclei
 Arranged closely to form
sheets
 No striations
Function
 Propels substances along
internal passageways
 Involuntary control
Location
 Mostly walls of hollow organs
Nervous Tissue
Nervous Tissue
Function
 Transmit electrical signals
from sensory receptors to
effectors
Location
 Brain, spinal cord, and nerves
Description
 Main components are brain,
spinal cord, and nerves
 Contains two types of cells
 Neurons – excitatory cells
 Supporting cells (neuroglial cells)
Tissue Response to Injury
Restoration involves
Inflammation
Regeneration (repair)

Inflammation
Due to something that damages/kills cells or fibers or
in some way damage tissue, causing . . .
 Swelling
 Warmth
 Redness
 Pain

These common conditions are a result of mast cell

activation – releases vasodilators such as histamine
Tissue Response to Injury
Goal:
Restore normal function to tissue
Process:
Fibroblasts activated to produce fibrous tissue
Usually remodeled over time
Challenges
Some tissues are non-vascular and will repair very
slowly
If excitable tissue is replaced by scar tissue – function is
lost!
The Tissues Throughout Life
Early on – Gastrulation
 The most important time in your life!!
 This is when tissues differentiate – mess up here and you don’t develop
correctly
At the end of second month of development:
 Primary tissue types have appeared
 Major organs are in place
Adulthood
 Only a few tissues regenerate
 Many tissues still retain populations of stem cells
With increasing age:
 Epithelia thin
 Collagen decreases
 Bones, muscles, and nervous tissue begin to atrophy
 Poor nutrition and poor circulation – poor health of tissues
 Increased chance of developing cancer