NAME-409

Marine Engineering -II

Conducted by:
Cdr Tasnuva

Steering System of Ships

Cdr Tasnuva 1
 INTRODUCTION
• Steering gear is the equipment provided on ships to turn the ship
to left (Port side) or to right (Starboard side) while in motion during
sailing

• Steering gear works only when the ship is in motion and does not
work when the ship is stationary

• Manually operated steering gears were in use during sailing ship

days. Sailors with strong body were required to operate the
steering gears
• Later on, after the onset of steam engines, mechanized gears were
used, and after the onset of electro technology steering system is
now high-tech and integrated with many functions
Cdr Tasnuva 2
 Basic requirements for steering gears guided by IACS
rules can be briefly outlined as:
• The steering gear should be capable of steering the ship from 35
degrees port to 35 degrees starboard and vice-versa with the
vessel plying forwards at a steady head-on speed for maximum
continuous rated shaft rpm and summer load waterline within a
time frame of maximum 28 seconds
• It is to be power operated where necessary to meet the above
conditions, and where the stock diameter exceeds 120 mm
• With one of the power units inoperative, the rudder shall be
capable of turning 15 degrees port to 15 degrees starboard (and
vice-versa) within a time frame of 1 minute with the vessel
moving at half its rated maximum speed or 7 knots (whichever is
greater) at summer load line
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 Basic requirements for steering gears guided by IACS
rules can be briefly outlined as:
• The major power units and the control systems are to be
duplicated so that if one of them fails, the other can easily
substitute for them as standby
• The steering system is to be provided with additional power unit
(hydraulic pump etc.) connected to the emergency power supply
from Emergency Generator, which shall be capable of turning the
rudder from 15 degrees from one side to other side within 60
seconds with the vessel moving at a maximum service speed or 7
knots, whichever is greater

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 Steering gear systems categories

Categories are:
•Mechanical
•Steam-mechanical
•Electro-mechanical
•Hydraulic
•Pneumatic –hydraulic
•Electro-hydraulic
•Jet steering

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Steering system of ships
Complete Steering Gear system
consists of three main parts,
namely:
• Telemotor (Transmitter and
receiver system)
• Control Unit
• Power Unit

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 Steering system of ships
• Transmitter is located on the navigation bridge/wheelhouse,
which transmits the given order to the Receiver located in the
steering gear compartment, by turning the steering wheel or
joystick or feeding autopilot data. The wheel order may be
transmitted to the Receiver through mechanical, pneumatic,
hydraulic or electric signals.
• The Receiver conveys this order to the Control Unit, also located
in the steering gear compartment.

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 Steering system of ships
• The control unit signal is then magnified/amplified in the power
unit to execute rudder stock motion towards port or starboard
through mechanical, electric or hydraulic power.
• Floating gear and hunting gear are part of control system, but
they are for feed back arrangement about rudder position.
Floating lever gets activated by the movement of the
transmitter plunger. Hunting lever is used to center-up the
steering pump or to bring the pump in non-pumping position as
and when rudder has reached the desired angle.

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Cdr Tasnuva 9
Cdr Tasnuva 10
• When the steering wheel 1 is turned anticlockwise, the pinion 2 moves
the toothed rack 3 downward and moves the toothed rack 4 upward. As
it is fixed to the two piston 5 and 6, the piston also moves
correspondingly

• As these two cylinders 7 & 8 are filled with oil, the movement of the
pistons result in oil pressure being applied to the bottom of the piston
10 and moves it upward and these forces the oil in upper part of
cylinder 9 up in to the cylinder 8

• Piston 10 has a piston rod connected to a slide valve 11. In its middle
position, the slide valve just closes the ports 12, 13, 14 in the slide valve
housing 15. As the piston 10 moves upward, the slide valve 11 also
moves along with it and opens port 12 and 14

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• These cause oil from the pressure vessel to come under side of the
piston 20 and the oil above piston 20 is forced into the slide valve
housing 15 and out through the port 12 to the discharge tank 16

• As a result, the piston 21 moves upward along with the piston 20 since
both these piston are connected together by piston rod

• These upward movements of the two pistons impart movement to the

tiller arm which is mounted on the rudder stock and hence moves the
rudder

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Hunting Gear Mechanism

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Hunting Gear Mechanism

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Hunting Gear Mechanism

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Hunting Gear Mechanism

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 Hunting Gear Mechanism
• The hunting gear mechanism is a feedback mechanism, which
transmits the position of the rudder to the pump control lever
through the floating lever
• one end of the floating lever C is connected to the hunting lever
and the other end A is connected to the telemotor receiver
• The pump control lever is connected to the middle of the floating
lever B, when the lever is in B position the pump will not discharge
• The telemotor receiver mover the floating lever A1 or A2 (port
/Starboard), according to the wheel order. When the floating lever
moves A to A1 the pump control rod moves B to B1.
• The pump is put on stroke and the pump will supply pressurized
hydraulic oil to ram cylinders or rotary vanes. The steering gear will
start moving and the rudder will start turning to port. As the rudder
starts turning, the hunting lever will move from C to C1 , pushing
the floating lever.
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 Hunting Gear Mechanism
• This will bring back the pump control lever to point B and pump will
stop discharge
• The rudder will remain the same position (port side) till the next order
is given
• When the steering wheel is moved to midship the telemotor control
will move the floating lever to A, pulling the pump control lever B2
• The pump will discharge in the opposite direction, supplying the
pressurized oil to the other sets of cylinder. This will turn the rudder in
the opposite direction
• As the rudder moves to midship the hunting lever moves to C ,
bringing the pump control rod to B, stopping the pump discharge

• When the wheel order is in starboard, the telemotor control moves

the floating lever to A2, and the floating lever controls the pump
discharge according to the feedback receives from the hunting lever
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Hunting Gear Mechanism

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 Ram Steering System

Single Ram

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 Double RAM
Double ram unit: two rams are
working simultaneously so that
the force of two diagonally
opposite rams can act on the
tiller as couple to produce
double the turning effect.
Double ram unit can be of two
cylinder or four cylinder

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Four Ram type Steering System

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Port movement of Steering System

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Starboard movement of Steering System

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Emergency of Steering System

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Cdr Tasnuva 26
Four Ram Twin Rudders

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 Rotary vane steering gear

– Rotaryvane steering gear is usually fitted with 3 fixed vanes and 3 moving
vanes and can turn to 700 of total rudder movement i.e 350 on each side.

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 Rotary vane steering gear

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* Rotor C is fitted and keyed to a tapered rudder stock A, stator
B is secured to the ship’s structure. Fixed vanes, secured
equidistantly in the stator bore and rotating vanes secured
equidistantly in the rotor, form two sets of pressure chambers in
the annular space between the rotor and stator.
* They are interconnected by a manifold. Fluid supplied at
pressure to one set of these chambers will rotate C clockwise
and the rudder will turn to port, or to starboard if the alternate
set is put under pressure.
* The fixed and rotating vanes may be of spheroidal graphite
cast iron. They are securely fixed to the cast steel rotor and
stator by high tensile steel dowel pins and cap screws. Keys are
also fitted along the length of the rotary vanes, for mechanical
strength. Cdr Tasnuva 30
Rotary vane steering gear

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Port Movement

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Starboard Movement

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• Assembly of the gear would not be possible if the fixed vanes were
keyed; they rely on the dowels to provide equivalent strength. The
vanes fixing is considered to be of sufficient strength to make
them suitable to act as rudder stops.
• Steel sealing strips, backed by synthetic rubber, are fitted in
grooves along the working faces of the fixed and rotary vanes, thus
ensuring a high volumetric efficiency, of 96—98% even at the relief
valve pressure of 100 bar or over. Rotation of B is prevented by
means of two anchor brackets, and two anchor pins. The anchor
brackets are securely bolted to the ship.
• Vertical clearance is arranged between the inside of the stator
flanges and the top and bottom of the anchor brackets to allow for
vertical movement of the rudderstock. This clearance varies with
each size of the rotary vane unit, but is approximately 38 mm in
total and it is necessary that the rudder carrier should be capable
of restricting the vertical movements of the rudderstock to less
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than this amount.
Hydraulic System of Steering

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 Hydraulic Pump of Steering
Steering pumps are basically of two major types:
 Radial piston type (Hele-Shaw)
 Axial Piston type (Swash plate)
Variable Stroke Radial Piston Pump (Hele Shaw Pump)

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 Variable Stroke Radial Piston Pump (Hele Shaw Pump)

Movement of the
floating rings from mid
position displaces the
circular path of rotation
of the piston from that of
the cylinder block and
produces a pumping
action. Cdr Tasnuva 37
 Variable Stroke Radial Piston Pump (Hele Shaw Pump)

Fig 9.4 [HD McGeorge, p 291] Cdr Tasnuva 38

The pump (Figure 9.4a) consists of case A, to which are attached two covers,
the shaft cover B and the pipe connection cover C. This latter cover carries
the D tube (or central valve), which has ports E and F forming the
connections between the cylinders and branches G and H. The cylinder
body J is driven by shaft K, and revolves on the D tube, being supported at
either end by ball bearings T.
The pistons L are fitted in radial cylinders, and through the outer end of
each piston there is a gudgeon pin M, which attaches the slippers N to the
piston. The slippers are free to oscillate on their gudgeon pins and fit into
tracks in the circular floating ring O. This ring is free to rotate, being
mounted on ball bearings P, which are housed in guide blocks R. The latter
bear on tracks formed on the covers B and C and are controlled by spindles
S, which pass through the pump case A. The maximum pump stroke is
restricted by the guide block ends coming in contact with the casing.
Further restriction of the pump stroke is affected externally

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Figure 9.4b shows sections through the D tube, cylinder body, pistons and
slippers at right angles to the axis. XY is the line along which stroke
variations take place. The arrow indicates the direction of rotation. With the
floating ring central, i.e. concentric with the D tube, (1) the slippers move
round in a circle concentric with the D tube, and consequently no
pumping action takes place. With the floating ring moved to the left, (2) the
slippers rotate in a path eccentric the D tube and cylinders, consequently
the pistons, as they pass above the line XY, recede from the D tube and
draw oil through the ports, E, whilst the pistons below XY approach the D
tube and discharge oil through ports F. With the floating ring moved to the
right (3) the reverse action takes place the lower pistons moving outwards
drawing oil through ports F and the upper pistons moving into the cylinders
and discharging oil through ports E. The direction of flow depends on the
location of the floating ring, left or right of the centre. The floating ring can
be moved to any intermediate position between the central and maximum
positions; the quantity of oil discharged varies according to the amount of
displacement of the floating ring from its mid-position
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 Variable Stroke Axial Piston Pump (swash plate pump)

The driving shaft rotates

the cylinder, barrel,
swash plate and piston.
An external turning
enables the swash plate
to be moved about its
axis which varies the
stroke of the piston in
the barrel

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 Variable Stroke Axial Piston Pump [Smith, p 280]

A. Input shaft
B. Tilting box
C. Roller bearings
D. Connecting rod
E. Piston
F. Cylinder barrel
G. Relief valve
H. Replenishing valve
J. Ports
K. Valve plate
L. Barrel joint
M. Universal joint
N. Socket ring
O. Control trunnion
P. Control cylinder
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 Swash-plate axial-cylinder pump

A circular cylinder barrel is bored and splined centrally to suit the

input shaft with which it revolves.
Several cylinder bores are machined in the cylinder barrel, concentric
and parallel with the shaft, one end of each terminating in a port
opening into that end face of the barrel which bears against the
stationary valve plate, maintained in contact by spring pressure,
compensating automatically for wear.
Ports in the valve plate match those in the barrel and are connected by
external pipes to the steering cylinders, through a valve chest. In the
current design, the cylinder barrel is driven by the input shaft through
a universal joint and the valve plate contact springs are supplemented
by hydraulic pressure in operation.
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43
 Swash-plate axial-cylinder pump
Each cylinder contains a piston, connected by a double ball-ended rod
to a socket ring driven by the input shaft through another universal
joint and rotating on roller thrust bearings (in some cases on Michel
pads) within a tilt box. This is carried on trunnions and can be tilted on
either side of the vertical by an external control, e.g. a telemotor.

Figure shows a cut-away section of the pump. When the tilt box is
vertical, the socket ring, cylinder barrel and pistons all revolve in the
same plane and the pistons have no stroke.

As the box is tilted, and with it the socket ring, stroke is given to the
pistons at each half-revolution, the length of stroke determined by the
angle of tilt.
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Swash-plate axial-cylinder pump

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 Rudders
Rudder is a device used for steering and maneuvering a vessel. Rudders are
hydrofoils which are pivoting on a vertical axis. They are located normally at the
stern behind propeller(s) to produce a transverse force and steering moment about
the ship’s center of gravity by deflecting the water flow to the direction of the foil
plane.

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 Rudders

• RUDDER(S) are placed in the center of the DISCHARGE flow

and the current of water rushing by producing a pressure on
the rudder blade which controls the direction of vessel
moving in the water.

• The required area of the rudder varies with different type of

vessels since desired maneuvering ability differs
considerably and the general ship design may impose
restrictions.

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 Rudders

Aspect Ratio = Span / Chord of Rudder

Its value is generally 2. High aspect ratio is used in large vessels, where
depth is not a constraint. Higher aspect ratio reduces the astern torque
considerably.
– Chord:
• Horizontal distance from leading to trailing edge
• Limited by propeller and edge of stern
– Span:
• Vertical distance from stock to tip Span
• Limited by local hull bottom and ship baseline

Chord
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 Rudders
The force on the rudder depend on:
• Area of the rudder
• The form/profile of rudder
• The speed of the ship
• The angle of helm/angle of attack
Rudder effectiveness can be improved by:
• Rudder arrangement in the propeller stream
• Increasing the rudder area
• Better rudder type (e.g. spade rudder instead of semi-balanced
rudder, high lift profiles or flap rudders)
• Steering gear which can allow larger rudder angles than
customary 35°,
• Shorter steering time (more powerful hydraulic pumps in steering
gear) Cdr Tasnuva 49
Rudder Profile:
NACA- National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, HSVA - developed for ship rudders by
Hamburg Ship Model Basin (Hamburgische Schiffbau Versuchsanstalt GmbH (HSVA),
Germany), IFS - developed to achieve a steep lift curve slope, a large stall angle, and a high
maximum lift coefficient by Institute Fur Schiffbau (IFS) Hamburg, Fishtail, Flapped, etc

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 Rudder Types
Rudder Types depend on the balance with respect to its stock vs centre of
pressure. On this basis, rudders are:
• Vertically aligned: Fully Balanced
• Rudder Stock at leading edge: Unbalanced
• Semi-Balanced
• Less operating torque than unbalanced
• Returns to centerline on failure

1. Balanced Rudder (Spade): The rudder stock

is positioned toward the center of gravity of the
rudder, requiring less force to turn it. This
rudder with about 35-40% of its area forward of
the stock is balanced by gravity since there will
be some angle at which the resultant moment
on the stock due to the water force will be zero.
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2. Unbalanced Rudder The rudder stock is at the leading edge of
the rudder. The blade has its entire area aft of the rudder stock .

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3. Semi Balanced Most modern rudders are of
semi-balanced design. This means that a certain
proportion of the water force acting on the after
part of the rudder is counter acted by the force
acting on the fore part of the rudder; hence, the
steering gear can be lighter and smaller.
Here, the rudder mounts on a “horn” protruding
from the hull. The top part being un-balanced will
help in acting as a structural support to the
rudder from vertical displacement. And the
balanced part will render less torque in swinging
the rudder. As a result, a semi balanced rudder
returns to the centreline orientation on its own if
the steering gear equipment fails during a turn.

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Ways to improve ship’s slow maneuverability
Rudder Position

To improve the low flow rate experienced by the rudder at slow speeds, the
rudder is often positioned directly behind the propeller. In this position, the
thrust from the propeller acts directly upon the control surface. A skilled
helmsman can then combine the throttle control and rudder angle to vector
thrust laterally and so create a larger turning moment.

Twin Propellers

The presence of 2 propellers working in unison can significantly improve

slow speed maneuverability. By putting one propeller in reverse and the
other forward, very large turning moments can be created with a very little
forward motion.
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Lateral/Bow Thrusters:
They are usually positioned at the bow
and consist of a tube running athwart
ships inside of which is a propeller pump.
They are usually electrically driven. With
a simple control from the bridge, the
helmsman can create a significant
turning moment in either direction.
Rotational Thrusters:
These provide the ultimate configuration
for slow speed maneuverability.
Rotational thrusters’ appearance and
operation resembles an outboard motor.
They consist of pods that can be lowered
from within the ship hull. Once
deployed, the thruster can be rotated
through 360 degrees allowing thrust to
be directed at any angle. Cdr Tasnuva 55
Why Rudder is situated at the aft of Ship ?
o To make use of propeller wash for thrust.
o The pivoting point of ship is 1/6 to 1/3 of length of ship from bow,
the greater the perpendicular distance between point of action of
force and pivoting point, the better rudder movement.
o Better protected at astern from damage.
o Drag is reduced if rudder is situated aft.

Why is torque on rudder stock more on going astern ?

o While moving astern, trailing edge of rudder becomes leading
edge. Center of pressure from turning axis increases.
o Flow of water to rudder is unobstructed causing point of action of
force to go closer to the leading edge, 0.31 times the width from
leading edge.
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What is the pivoting point for ships ?
The ship turns about a point called pivoting point. It is the centre of
pressure. This is situated about 1/3 rd to 1/6 th of the ship length from
forward, depending on the ship design.

Why astern turning moment much less than ahead ?

The propeller thrust adds to the force on the rudder when going ahead, but
in astern that thrust is lost.
The pivoting point (point about which ship turns) shifts aft to 1/3 rd the
length from aft. This reduces turning moment greatly.

Why steering test rudder angle 35 degree to 30 degree ?

So that the point at which it is reached can be exactly judged as it crosses 30
degree.
As hunting gear puts pump stroke to zero, the rudder movement slows down
progressively as it approaches 35 degree.
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 Rudder Performance
• Rudder doesn’t turn ship, hydrodynamics of water flow past the ship is
the reason for turning it. Rudder flow provides LIFT.
• Ship is turned by moment produced about the LCP (not LCG)

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 Rudder Performance
What rudder DOES? It orients the ship at an angle to the direction of
travel.
The pressure on the side of the hull causes the ship to turn
(it acts like a flap on an aircraft wing).
Lift produced by force of imbalance acts perpendicular to the flow stream.
Lift and drag act at the center of pressure.

Insignificant

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 Rudder Performance
Stages of turning a ship:

Rudder at midship

Water Flow
Rudder is turned

Ship orients itself at the

desired angle to
oncoming seas
Hull Lift
• Rudder Action:
– “Kicks” stern of ship in opposite to desired direction
– Ship’s angle to flow drives ship in desired direction
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Rudder Performance

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Rudder Performance

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 Rudder Performance
Rudder Stall
If the angle of the rudder is too great, the
high and lower pressure areas on the
rudder will disrupt water flow over the
surface.
Beyond 35 degree rudder efficiency is
reduced due to formation of eddies on
the back of rudder as the flow is no
longer streamlined. This is
called stalled condition. Then, the rudder
will produce no lift, and so will not
effectively orient the ship for turning.
The maneuverability does not increase
beyond 35 degree, but rudder torque
increases and ship’s turning circle
increases. Moreover, rudder will create
turbulence and drag with no effect on
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Cdr Tasnuva 64
Rudder Performance
• Keep Rudder angle   35 or STALL likely.

Max Lift Point

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 Turning Response
-The ability to turn the ship when the rudder is applied to the desired
heading with minimal overshoot
-When applied, the rudder must be able to change the orientation of the ship
in a minimum set time.
-The ship must be able to return on course without going beyond the desired
heading.
- Responsiveness is determined by the ship’s mission
- A combatant needs high maneuverability
- A merchant ship needs much less than a combatant
- Response depends on rudder dimensions, rudder angle and flow speed.

- Can quantify responsiveness by the Rudder Area Ratio ( C )

R

- Directly conflicts with “controls fixed straight line stability”.

- Determined during sea trials and Cdrtank

Tasnuva
tests. 66
 Factors in Turning Response:
• Rudder dimensions: is limited by space. Larger rudder area
means more maneuverability, but more drag.

• Rudder angle: is the level of response depends on standard

rudder ordered and available range.

• Ship speed: determines level of water flow past control surface.

• Steering Gear: is to have arrangement for quickest reaction.

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 Rudder Estimation
Ruder Area: Ar  Cr Lwl d m Where Cr varies from 0.018 to 0.03 depending on ship
type

= d LBP /100 [1+25 (B/ LBP)2]

1
DR  Cdrag Ar 1.2Va   1 C F  1  k SArVS 2
2
Rudder Drag:
2 2
Where k varies from 0.3 to 1.8 depending
upon rudder type
2
Transverse Force: Ft = 580 ArVS sinα cosα

where α= Rudder angle

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 Rudder Estimation
Force (Newton) acting on the rudder blade is given by: N

where k = a coefficient which depends upon the shape of the rudder, the rudder
angle and the density of the water. When ship speed is expressed in m/s, average
values of k for sea water vary between about 570 and 610. A = rudder area and v =
ship speed
If the rudder is turned to an angle α, then the component of force acting normal to
the plane of the rudder is given by:

If the center of effort is b m from the center of the rudder stock. then at an angIe α

From the basic: torsion equation the diameter of the stock may be found for any given
allowable Stress.

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 Rudder Estimation
Example. A rudder has an area of 15 sq m with its centre of effort 0.9 m
from the centre of stock. The maximum rudder angle is 35° and it is
designed for a service speed of 15 knots. Calcu1ate the diameter of the
rudder stock if the maximum allowable stress in the stock is 55 MN/sq m.

Example. A vessel of length bewteen perpendicular 150 m breadth

moulded 20 m and draft 7 m has the rudder with centre of effort 0.9 m
from the centre of stock. The maximum rudder angle is 35° and it is
designed for a service speed of 15 knots. Calcu1ate the diameter of the
rudder stock if the maximum allowable stress in the stock is 55 MN/sq m.

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Solution:

Therefore,
radius of stock,
r = 0.145 m

Dia of stock = 0.29 m

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Angle of heel due to force on rudder

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Angle of heel due to force on rudder

When a ship's rudder is put over to port, the forces

on the rudder itself causes the ship to develop a
small angle of heel initially to port. The underwater
form of the ship and centrifugal force on it cause the
ship to heel to starboard

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Angle of heel due to force on rudder
For equilibrium:
Righting moment = heeling moment
g  GM sin   Ft  NL cos 
1  Ft NL 
  tan   
 g GM 

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Example: A ship of 8000 tonne displacement has a metacentric height of 0.4 m . Its
rudder area is 18 m2 . The centre of lateral resistance is 4 m above the keel while
the centroid of the rudder is 2.35 m above the keel. The maximum rudder angle is
350 . Calculate the angle of heel due to the force on the rudder if the latter is put
hard over to port when travelling at 21 knots.
Solution:
Ship’s speed, V = 21 kts = 21 x1852/3600 m/s = 10.8 m/s
Transverse Force, Ft = 580 A V2 sinα cosα
= 580 x 18 x (10.8)2 x 0.5736 x 0.8192
= 572 200 N
Angle of heel can be obtained as follows:
 Ft NL  1  572200 4  2.35
  tan  
1
 tan   
 8  10  9.81
6
 g GM  0. 4 

θ = tan-1 0.03007 = 1.7224Cdr degree

Tasnuva
to port 75
 BG

0.05945
3.4 degree

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 Angle of heeling while turning
Let, the ship is turning to stbd. Then the sequence of events are as
follows:

1. Steering wheel as well as rudder put over to starboard.

2. The athwartships component of thrust (F) acts on the face of rudder at

the centre of pressure (P) which normally coincides with geometric
centre

Fig : 1
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3. An equal and opposite reaction (Ft ) resists the athwartship
motion at the centre of lateral resistance (CLR) (Fig: 2).

4. An inward heeling couple is set up for which the heeling

moment is F x PQ (Fig: 3)

Fig : 3

Fig : 2 Fig : 4
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5. When the ship achieves a steady rate of turn, the inward heel is
overcome by the effect of centrifugal force acting outwards through
the ship’s centre of gravity (G).

2
Vs
Centrifugal force =
gR
Where, Δ = Ship’s displacement
Vs = Ship’s speed
R = Radius of turning circle

The centrifugal force is opposed by an equal and opposite

centripetal force which acts through the CLR.

The CLR is assumed to be at the same height above the keel as the
centre of buoyancy (B) Cdr Tasnuva 79
 Angle of heeling while turning
The original inward heeling moment is overcome by this outward heeling
couple which develops in the steady turn state.
In the turning, the ship will settle at an angle of steady heel when the
outward heeling moment balances the normal righting moment (GZ x Δ).
At small angles of heel, GZ = GM x sinθ

2
Vs
2 gR
Vs
gR

Cdr Tasnuva 80
 2
Vs
2
Vs gR
gR

Cdr Tasnuva 81
 Angle of heeling while turning
At the small angle of heel,
Righting Moment = Heeling Moment
2
Vs
  GZ  d
gR
2
Vs
  GM  Sin    BG  Cos
gR

2
Vs BG
tan   
gR GM
Cdr Tasnuva 82
Cdr Tasnuva 83