SRI RAMAKRISHNA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,

COIMBATORE-10
(Autonomous Institution, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi – Affiliated to Anna
University, Chennai)

Professional Ethics in Engineering

1 05/22/2024
 Engineering as social Experimentation

Engineering as Experimentation – Engineers as

responsible Experimenters – Codes of Ethics – A
Balanced Outlook on Law.
 Engineering as Social Experimentation

 “All products of technology present some potential dangers,

and thus engineering is an inherently risky activity.

 In order to underscore this fact and help in exploring its ethical

implications, we suggest that engineering should be viewed as
an experimental process.

 It is not, of course, an experiment conducted solely in a

laboratory under controlled conditions. Rather, it is an
experiment on a social scale involving human subjects.”
Social Importance of Engineering
Engineering has a direct and vital effect on the quality of life of
people. Accordingly, the services provided by engineers must
be dedicated to the protection of the public safety, health and
welfare.
ENGINEERING AS EXPERIMENTATION

Before manufacturing a product or providing a project,

we make several assumptions and trials, design and
redesign and test several times till the product is
observed to be functioning satisfactorily.

 We try different materials and experiments. From the

test data obtained we make detailed design and retests.
Thus, design as well as engineering is iterative process
as illustrated in Fig
Several redesigns are made upon the feedback
information on the performance or failure in the field
or in the factory. Besides the tests, each engineering
project is modified during execution, based on the
periodical feedback on the progress and the lessons
from other sources.

Hence, the development of a product or a project as a

whole may be considered as an experiment.
Engineering Projects VS. Standard
Experiments
 We shall now compare the two activities, and identify the
similarities and contrasts.
 A. Similarities
 1. Partial ignorance: The project is usually executed in partial
ignorance. Uncertainties exist in the model assumed. The behavior of
materials purchased is uncertain and not constant (that is certain!).
 They may vary with the suppliers, processed lot, time, and the
process used in shaping the materials (e.g., sheet or plate, rod or
wire, forged or cast or welded).
 There may be variations in the grain structure and its resulting failure
stress. It is not possible to collect data on all variations. In some
cases, extrapolation, interpolation, assumptions of linear behavior
over the range of parameters, accelerated testing, simulations, and
virtual testing are resorted.
 Uncertainty: The final outcomes of projects are also
uncertain, as in experiments. Some times unintended
results, side effects (bye-products), and unsafe operation
have also occurred.

 Unexpected risks, such as undue seepage in a storage

dam, leakage of nuclear radiation from an atomic power
plant, presence of pesticides in food or soft drink bottle, an
new irrigation canal spreading water-borne diseases, and
an unsuspecting hair dryer causing lung cancer on the user
from the asbestos gasket used in the product have been
reported.
Continuous monitoring: Monitoring continually the
progress and gaining new knowledge are needed before,
during, and after execution of project as in the case of
experimentation. The performance is to be monitored even
during the use (or wrong use!) of the product by the end
user/beneficiary.
 Learning from the past: Engineers normally learn from
their own prior designs and infer from the analysis of
operation and results, and sometimes from the reports of
other engineers. But this does not happen frequently. The
absence of interest and channels of communication, ego in
not seeking information, guilty upon the failure, fear of
legal actions, and mere negligence have caused many a
failure,

 e.g., the Titanic lacked sufficient number of life boats—it

had only 825 boats for the actual passengers of 2227, the
capacity of the ship being 3547! In the emergent situation,
all the existing life boats could not be launched.
 RMS Titanic was a British passenger liner that sank in the
North Atlantic Ocean in the early hours of 15 April 1912,
after colliding with an iceberg during its maiden
voyage from Southampton to New York City.
 ]There were an estimated 2,224 passengers and crew aboard,
and more than 1,500 died, making it one of the deadliest
commercial peacetime maritime disasters in modern
history. RMS Titanic was the largest ship afloat at the time it
entered service and was the second of three Olympic-class
ocean liners operated by the White Star Line. It was built by
the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast. Thomas
Andrews, her architect, died in the disaster
 The wreck of Titanic was discovered in 1985 (more than 70 years
after the disaster), and remains on the seabed. The ship was split in
two and is gradually disintegrating at a depth of 12,415 feet
(3,784 m). Thousands of artefacts have been recovered and
displayed at museums around the world.

 Titanic has become one of the most famous ships in history; her
memory is kept alive by numerous works of popular culture,
including books, folk songs, films, exhibits, and
memorials. Titanic is the second largest ocean liner wreck in the
world, only beaten by her sister HMHS Britannic, the largest ever
sunk, although she holds the record as the largest sunk while
actually in service as a liner due to Britannic being used as
a hospital ship at the time of her sinking
Forty years back, another steamship Arctic met with same
tragedy due to the same problem in the same region. But
the lesson was learned. In most of the hydraulic systems,
valves had been the critical components that are least
reliable.
The confusion on knowing whether the valve was open or
closed, was the cause of the Three-Mile Island accident in
1979. Similar malfunctioning of valves and mis-reading
of gauges have been reported to have caused the
accidents else where in some power plants. But we have
not learnt the lesson from the past. The complacency that
it will not happen again and will not happen 'to me' has
lead to many disasters
 The scientific experiments in the laboratory and the
engineering experiments in the filed exhibit several contrasts
as listed below: 1. Experimental control: In standard
experiments, members for study are selected into two groups
namely A and B at random. Group A are given special
treatment. The group B is given no treatment and is called the
‘controlled group’. But they are placed in the same
environment as the other group A.
 This process is called the experimental control. This practice is
adopted in the field of medicine. In engineering, this does not
happen, except when the project is confined to laboratory
experiments.
 This is because it is the clients or consumers who choose the
product, exercise the control. It is not possible to make a
random selection of participants from various groups. In
engineering, through random sampling, the survey is made
from among the users, to assess the results on the product.
 Humane touch: Engineering experiments involve human souls,
their needs, views, expectations, and creative use as in case of
social experimentation. This point of view is not agreed by
many of the engineers. But now the quality engineers and
managers have fully realized this humane aspect

 Informed consent: Engineering experimentation is viewed as

Societal Experiment since the subject and the beneficiary are
human beings. In this respect, it is similar to medical
experimentation on human beings. In the case of medical
practice, moral and legal rights have been recognized while
planning for experimentation. Informed consent is practiced in
medical experimentation. Such a practice is not there in
scientific laboratory experiments. Informed consent has two
basic elements:
1. Knowledge: The subject should be given all relevant
information needed to make the decision to participate. 2.
Voluntariness: Subject should take part without force, fraud
or deception.
Respect for rights of minorities to dissent and
compensation for harmful effect are assumed here. For a
valid consent, the following conditions are to be fulfilled:
1. Consent must be voluntary 2. All relevant information
shall be presented/stated in a clearly understandable form 3.
Consenter shall be capable of processing the information
and make rational decisions. 4. The subject’s consent may
be offered in proxy by a group that represents many
subjects of like-interests
 1. Knowledge: The subject should be given all relevant
information needed to make the decision to participate. 2.
Voluntariness: Subject should take part without force, fraud
or deception. Respect for rights of minorities to dissent and
compensation for harmful effect are assumed here. For a
valid consent, the following conditions are to be fulfilled:
1. Consent must be voluntary
2. All relevant information shall be presented/stated in a
clearly understandable form
3. Consenter shall be capable of processing the information
and make rational decisions.
4. The subject’s consent may be offered in proxy by a
group that represents many subjects of like-interests
Informed consent when bringing an engineering product to
market, implies letting the customer know the following:
 (a) the knowledge about the product
 (b) risks and benefits of using the product and
 (c) all relevant information on the product, such as how to
use and how not to use (do’s and don’ts).
The relevant factual information implies, that the
engineers are obliged to obtain and assess all the available
information related to the fulfillment of one’s moral
obligations (i.e., wrong or immoral use of a product one
designs), including the intended and unintended impacts
of the product, on the society. Still there exists a
possibility of a
large gap of understanding between the experimenter
and the subjects (public). Sometimes, the
managements have not been willing to disseminate the
full information about the project or product beyond
the legal requirements, because of the fear of potential
competitions and likely exposure to potential litigation
 People object to involuntary risks wherein the affected
individual is neither a direct participant nor a decision maker.
In short, we prefer to be the subjects of our own experiments
rather than those of somebody else.
 If it is an asbestos plant or nuclear plant to be approved,
affected parties expect their consent to be obtained. But they
are ready to accept voluntary risks as in the case of stunts and
amazing races. In case of Koodangulam power project as well
as the Sethusamudram Canal Project, Tamil Nadu, several
citizen groups including Fishermen Forums have responded.
The Central government was able contain many harsh
apprehensions and protracted legal and political battles, by
providing all relevant information.
Knowledge gained: Not much of new knowledge is
developed in engineering experiments as in the case of
scientific experiments in the laboratory. Engineering
experiments at the most help us to (a) verify the
adequacy of the design, (b) to check the stability of the
design parameters, and (c) prepare for the unexpected
outcomes, in the actual field environments. From the
models tested in the laboratory to the pilot plant tested
in the field, there are differences in performance as
well as other outcomes.
India-based Neutrino Observatory
India-based Neutrino Observatory (INO) is a particle
physics research project under construction to
primarily study atmospheric neutrinos in a 1,300
meters (4,300 ft) deep cave under Ino Peak
near Theni, Tamil Nadu, India. This project is notable
in that it is anticipated to provide a precise
measurement of neutrino mixing parameters. The
project is a multi-institute collaboration and one of the
biggest experimental particle physics projects
undertaken in India
 The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research is the nodal
institution. The observatory is to be built jointly with the
Department of Atomic Energy and the Department of
Science and Technology.

 It is an underground project and will comprise a complex

of caverns. The main cavern, which will house the huge
neutrino detector [50-kilo tonne magnetised iron
calorimeter], will be 130 m long, 26 m wide, and 30 m
high. Two smaller caverns will be used for setting up
experiments for neutrino double detector and dark matter.
Approach to this complex will be by a 2-km-long tunnel.
Codes of Professional Ethics
A code of professional ethics appears when an occupation
organizes itself into a profession.

It is central to advising individual professionals how to conduct

themselves, to judging their conduct, and to understanding of a
profession.
 “People enjoy what technology can do for them while often ignoring what it can do to them”

--Edward Wenk

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 What does “having” social responsibilities
mean?
 It means a commitment from the engineering profession, and,
by proxy, the individual engineers who belong to the
profession, to place the public safety and interest ahead of all
other considerations and obligations (with certain caveats to be
explained later).

 It means that engineers take into account and show due regard
for the consequences of their conduct for the well-being of
others as well as for the impact of their work on society and the
citizenry.

 This requires the engineer to make determined efforts to

discover all of the relevant facts concerning the design,
development, and deployment and all of the possible outcomes
of the choices available that may positively and negatively
27 affect/impact society and the citizenry
 Social Responsibilities of Engineers (Some Examples)

 Ensure the safety and well-being of the public

 Ensure that society’s funds and resources concerning
technology are well used
 Refusing to work on a particular project or for a particular
company
 Speaking out publicly against a proposed project
 Blowing the whistle on illegality or wrong-doing
 Professional Societies’ obligation to provide protection for
whistleblowers
 Individual and organizational concern about the impact of
engineering projects on society
 Contributing one’s services to worthy, non-profit groups and
projects
 Engineering schools’ commitment to educating future
engineers about their social responsibilities
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 Establishing a code of ethics for engineers will no doubt
help people (engineers) working in an organization to
freely express their views on matters related to safety to
the management.
Helping to express views without barriers is one of the
most important role of codes.
Role of codes :

Codes have a number of roles to play and the most

important ones have been listed :
 Inspiring and Guiding
 Support for responsible conduct
 Deterring and disciplining unethical professional
conduct
 Education and promotion of mutual understanding
 Contributing to positive public image of the profession
 Promoting business interest through restraints of trade
“I am bound by the codes of my profession to take care
of those who provoke unethical principles”
 Social Responsibilities of Engineers
(Some Examples)
 Commitment of engineering professions and organizations to
principles of social responsibility
 Commitment of risk assessment experts to ethical risk/safety
assessments
 Actively promote the ethical development and use of
technology
 Voluntarily assume the task of educating the public about
important consequences of various technological and scientific
developments
 Commitment of engineers to design and develop sustainable
technologies
 Provide expert advice to non-experts
 Take part in democratic procedures for technology decision
making and policy management
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 Social activism of engineers in the public Interest
 Explicit care and concern about technology’s impact on
Nature and the Environment
 Abiding by the principles of sustainable development when
thinking about engineering designs
 Abiding by the “precautionary principle” when thinking
about engineering designs
 In engineering design, engineers have practiced social
responsibility by applying factors of safety to their designs
and by building in redundancy
 Engineering Social Responsibility
 Why do engineers have the responsibility to think about the
interaction of technology and society?
 One reason: Because engineers are the ones who create all
of the technology
 Responsible moral beings are supposed to think about the
effects of their own actions and creations especially if they
impact others
 Possible response: “but engineers and scientists, like
professionals in general, are supposed to implement the
goals of their employers and clients, not decide what those
goals should be”

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 Arguments that Engineers Don’t (Shouldn’t/Couldn’t)
Have Social Responsibilities
1. Engineering is not a true profession so society
should not expect that engineers have social
responsibilities like the other “true” professions
2. Engineering is a value-free enterprise that deals
only in objective facts
3. Engineers are not qualified to make ethical
judgments on behalf of society so it is unfair to
think they should or could
4. The nature of engineer-manager relations in
large organizations
 Engineers lack decision-making autonomy and power

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 Arguments that Engineers Don’t (Shouldn’t/Couldn’t)
Have Social Responsibilities (Argument One)

1. Engineering is not a true profession and so society shouldn’t

hold the profession of engineering, or individual engineers, to
higher ethical standards as it does other true professions such
as medicine, law, and university professors
1. Professions have social responsibilities but engineering is
not a profession like medicine and law and so it does not
have the same, higher, social responsibilities
2. Engineering does not serve a crucial social need and high
ends that is the basis of an implicit social contract
3. Engineering is not given the same privileges other
professionals so there is not a social contract that promotes
engineering social responsibility

36
 Engineers Don’t (Shouldn’t/Couldn’t) Have
Social Responsibilities: Argument One
 Differences between engineers and other professionals such
as medicine, law, university professors, etc.
 Such professions serve crucial social needs and high ends
such as Health (Doctors), Truth and Knowledge
(Professors), Social Justice (Lawyers)
Society grants special privileges to such groups for
socially recognized essential needs
Engineering lacks such ends, privileges, and protections

 Engineers lack legal and quasi-legal protections to do or

refrain from performing certain actions: for example,
professors (academic freedom), journalists (sources), and
clergy and psychiatrists (confidentiality)

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Counterargument
 The professionalization of engineering does serve crucial
social needs Material well-being through technological
systems and artifacts
 Engineers Don’t (Shouldn’t/Couldn’t) Have
Social Responsibilities: Argument Two
 Engineers maintain a value-free objectivity following a
scientific methodology absent of any subjectivity
 To make individual engineers socially responsible is to inject
a radical, arbitrary, and precarious subjectivity based on the
“whims” of individual engineers
"...engineering ethics is not, or should not be a medium for
expressing one’’s personal opinions about life. "
"Engineers do not have the responsibility, much less the
right, to establish goals for society." (Florman, p. 95)
Counterargument
 Engineers, because they know the technology at the most
intimate level, are aware of its risks and limits as well as its
benefits
 Engineers could be educated to become more aware of their
ethical responsibilities and how to make ethically
39
responsible decisions regarding its design, development, and
deployment
 Engineers Don’t (Shouldn’t/Couldn’t) Have
Social Responsibilities: Argument Three
 The individual engineer is not qualified to make judgments as
to the ethical acceptability or unacceptability of technology

 The choices as to which technology should be designed or built

can only be made on the basis of systems of human values
incapable of validation by the scientific and/or the engineering
method

“It is not the engineer's job, in his or her daily work, to

second-guess prevailing standards of safety or pollution
control, nor to challenge democratically established public
policy." (Florman)

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Counterargument

 Is this a subterfuge for inaction?”

 Engineers cannot escape social responsibilities for choice of

action by alleging some kind of objectivity not possessed by
the layperson or lay citizenry or by claiming incompetence
and/or ignorance as to the social impact of his/her design, and
the corresponding public sentiment about it.

 Whose interests does it serve? Does it serve corporate interests

at the expense of the interests of the public when it comes to
risk or harm to the citizenry?

 Is this an abdication of responsibility?

 Engineer-Manager Relations in Large Corporations
or Organizations: Argument Four
The “Received View”:
 The corporate engineer lacks the sufficient autonomy
necessary to be responsible and ethical
 The engineer is in constant conflict with management who
often ends up overriding engineering judgment concerning
engineering designs because of their incessant pursuit of
the bottom line
 Lack of professional autonomy leaves scant room for
ethical decision making (but not ethical judgment)

42
 Engineer-Manager Relations in Large Corporations or
Organizations: Argument Four (cont.)
Engineers are a captive profession in a highly
compartmentalized work environment.
Managers choose what to do, divide work up into
small groups, and assign each engineer to a particular
one
Communication between engineers and managers is
kept to a minimum to assure management control
Engineers identify options, test them, and report the
work to managers
Managers combine these reports with business
information they alone have.
Managers decide, engineers merely advise
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 Engineer-Manager Relations in Large Corporations or
Organizations : Argument Four (cont.)

Corporate engineers are used as “hired hands” who

develop technology with the sole purpose of
advancing the economic demands of the corporation
or client
Engineers are not independent professionals—They
are employees
Emerging from the canal and railway building
enterprises of the nineteenth century American
engineering is a creature of large bureaucratic
organizations—individual engineers were the original
44
“organization man”
 The concept of “Organization Man”
 This term was coined in the 1960s when sociological analyses
of bureaucracies were conducted
 An “organization man” is someone who represses or
suppresses his or her individual desires and values and molds
their personal behavior to conform to the demands of the
organization he or she works for; a conformist
 Another definition is a employee of large corporations who has
adapted so completely to what is expected in attitudes, ideas,
and behaviors of the corporation so that they lose a sense of
personal identity or independence
 Someone who so fully adapts that their personal identity and
values are absorbed by organizational objectives and values
 Someone who sacrifices his or her own individuality for what
is perceived as the good of the organization

45
 Engineer-Manager Relations in Large Corporations
or Organizations: Counterargument
Recent research: The Received View is False

Instead of rigid hierarchical and compartmentalized

decision making process of the received view
There exists a highly fluid process depending heavily
on meetings and less formal exchange of information
across departmental boundaries
Managers seemed to have little control over what
information would reach the engineers
Managers are anxious to get engineers to hook up
with one another for collaboration

46
 Arguments/rationales for the Social
Responsibility of Engineers
1. Codes of Ethics
2. Professionalism
3. Social Contract Model
4. Engineering Societies
5. Principle of Proportionate Care
6. Engineering as Social Experimentation
7. The Intrinsic Purpose of Engineering Itself
8. The Impacts of Technology on Society

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 Rationales for Social Responsibility of Engineers
 Fundamental Canons (NSPE)
1. Hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the
public
2. Perform services only in areas of their competence
3. Issue public statements only in an objective and
truthful manner
4. Act for each employer or client as faithful agents or
trustees
5. Avoid deceptive acts

48
 Rationales for Social Responsibility of Engineers
IEEE Code of Ethics
We, the members of the IEEE, in recognition of the
importance of our technologies in affecting the quality of life
throughout the world, and in accepting a personal obligation
to our profession, its members and the communities we
serve, do hereby commit ourselves to the highest ethical and
professional conduct and agree:
 1. to accept responsibility in making decisions consistent with the
safety, health and welfare of the public, and to disclose promptly
factors that might endanger the public or the environment;
 5. to improve the understanding of technology, its appropriate
application, and potential consequences

49
 Engineering Codes of Ethics
 ASCE Code of Ethics

 Fundamental Canon 1.Engineers shall hold paramount the safety,

health and welfare of the public and shall strive to comply with the
principles of sustainable development in the performance of their
professional duties.

 Software Engineering Code of Ethics

 Principle1.03. Approve software only if they have a well-founded belief

that it is safe, meets specifications, passes appropriate tests, and does not
diminish quality of life, diminish privacy or harm the environment.
The ultimate effect of the work should be to the public good.

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 IEEE Code of Ethics for Engineers
ARTICLE IV
 Engineers shall, in fulfilling their responsibilities to the
community:
 Protect the safety, health and welfare of the public and
speak out against abuses in these areas affecting the
public interest;
 Contribute professional advice, as appropriate, to civic,
charitable or other non-profit organizations;
 Seek to extend public knowledge and appreciation of the
engineering profession and its achievements

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 Professionalism
WHAT IS A PROFESSIONAL?

Originally, one who professed adherence to monastic vows of a religious

order.
* a free act of commitment to a specific way of life
* allegiance to high moral standards
* skill, knowledge, practice of an art

WHAT IS A PROFESSIONAL?

Today, it is one who is “duly qualified” in a specific field

* special theoretical knowledge or education
* appropriate experience
* knowledge and skills vital to the well-being of a large potion of
society
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* Professional organization and a code of ethic
* special social sanction
 Models of Professionalism
Business Model

* professional status provides economic

gain

* monopoly provides for high pay

* self-regulation avoids government

regulation

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 MODELS OF PROFESSIONALISM
Social Contract Model

 Professionals are guardians of the public trust

 Professions are social institutions—they are organized by some

act of society and are granted special powers in return for
socially beneficial goods and services (Licensure)

 An implicit, unstated agreement exists between professional

and society

 Society may subsidize training of professionals

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 The Implicit Contract Between Society
and the Engineering Profession

Society agrees to:

* allow a certain autonomy
- freedom of self-regulation
- freedom to choose clients
* social status
- respect from society, titles
* high remuneration
- reward for services
- attract competent individuals

 Society grants the professions the autonomy to define their own norms
of behavior and action because it values their knowledge and the
discretion to use it towards some socially recognized ends
 Society gives professions and professionals special powers not granted
to ordinary citizens to perform their socially defined roles
55
 The Implicit Contract Between Society
and the Engineering Profession

Professionals agree to:

* provide a service
- for the public well-being
- promote public welfare, even at own expense
* self-regulation
- enforce competence
- enforce ethical standards

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 The Implicit Contract Between Society
and the Engineering Profession
 Clients place their trust not only in individual professionals but also in the
professional organization and they trust professionals because the exercise
of professional discretion at the individual level is governed by rules which
are prescribed and enforced by the group
 By developing codes of professional ethics a profession can be said to have
acknowledged an organizational responsibility to evaluate individual
behavior according to group norms (BER of NSPE)
 The professions’ presumptive preference for self-regulation as an
alternative to increased public control requires that they assume greater
internal control over their affairs. This means that the profession of
engineering has a strong responsibility to make sure that technology is
produced that is good and beneficial to society, and technological goods
should be distributed fairly and justly among all members of our society

57
 The Implicit Contract Between Society
and the Engineering Profession
Self regulation places the burden of proof
collectively on the organization to ensure that
individual members are technically competent to
perform their duties according to high ethical
standards and that engineers have genuine concern
for how technology impacts society, both
negatively as well as positively
To voluntarily claim the benefits of a profession a
member of that profession is obligated to follow
the rules and norms of that profession—If not, they
would be taking unfair advantage of a voluntary
cooperative practice

58
 Principle of Proportionate Care
 Principle of Due Care:

 “All things being equal, one should exercise due care to avoid contributing
to significantly harming others”

 Principle of Proportionate Care

 “When one is in a position to contribute to greater harm or when one is in a

position to play a more critical part in producing harm than is another
person, one must exercise greater care to avoid so doing”

 If doctors fail to do their job with technical competency or ethical commitment,

an individual may be harmed or killed

 If engineers fail to do their job with technical competency or commitment to

ethics, dozens, hundreds, even thousands may be harmed or killed

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 Principle of Proportionate Care

To the extent that the engineers, due to their special

knowledge of technology, and the fact that technology
could be risky and dangerous, could harm society,
they must exercise due care in the practice of their
profession.
The more engineers are in a position to harm society,
the more they should be held to a higher ethical
standard
Society requires this in order to ensure the safe and
reliable design, development, and deployment of
technological systems and artifacts

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 Principle of Proportionate Care
There is a direct relationship between their ability to cause
harm and the need to hold engineers to the highest of
ethical standards

High Level of Harm High Level of Ethics

Potential to cause harm Level of Ethical Standard

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 The Separatist Thesis:
The Special Obligations of
Professional Engineers
 A good starting point for deciding whether anyone has a
special moral obligation to others is to ask whether s/he is
especially well placed to benefit or harm them…The outcome
of scientific work can often have great impact for good or ill on
other people. Quite frequently scientists can predict this
outcome earlier and more accurately than others. Sometimes
they can even modify the results. One could claim therefore,
that engineers are in one of those special positions which give
them special obligations”)
 Examples: Columbia Tragedy, Challenger Disaster, DC-10 Crashes, Ford Pinto
Rear End Collisions.

 Example: Physicians and nurses have a special obligation to use their

knowledge and skills to improve the health of their patients

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 The Intrinsic Nature of Engineering
There are two general types of definitions of engineering:
The Narrow Definition and the Broad Definition

The Narrow Definition

 Engineering is the application of scientific and mathematical principles to practical ends
such as the design, manufacture, and operation of efficient and economic structures,
machines, processes, and systems
 Engineering is the art or science of making practical application of the knowledge of pure
sciences, as physics, chemistry, biology, etc.
--Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary

 Engineering is the science and art of efficient dealing with materials and forces ... it
involves the most economic design and execution ... assuring, when properly performed,
the most advantageous combination of accuracy, safety, durability, speed, simplicity,
efficiency, and economy possible for the conditions of design and service.
 Engineering is the practical application of science to commerce or industry

 "Engineering design is the systematic, intelligent generation and evaluation of

specifications for artifacts whose form and function achieve stated objectives and satisfy
specified constraints."

63
 The Intrinsic Nature of Engineering
The Broad Definition

 The engineer is one who is claimed to possess

specialized knowledge, esp. as regards the treating of
human problems by scientific or technical means.
 "Engineering is the professional art of applying
science to the optimum conversion of natural
resources to the benefit of man.“
 Engineering is the profession that puts power and
materials to work for the benefit of mankind

64
 The Intrinsic Nature of Engineering
The Broad Definition
 Engineering is the application of science to the common
purpose of life.
 Engineering is the art of directing the great sources of power in
nature for the use and convenience of man.
 Engineering is the art of organizing and directing men and
controlling the forces and materials of nature for the benefit of
the human race.
 Engineering is the profession in which a knowledge of the
mathematical and natural sciences gained by study,
experience, and practice is applied with judgment to develop
ways to utilize, economically, the materials and forces of
nature for the benefit of mankind.
65
--Engineers Council for Professional Development (1961/1979)
 The Intrinsic Nature of Engineering
The Broad Definition

 The engineer is the key figure in the material progress of

the world. It is his engineering that makes a reality of the
potential value of science by translating scientific
knowledge into tools, resources, energy and labor to bring
them into the service of man ... To make contributions of
this kind the engineer requires the imagination to visualize
the needs of society and to appreciate what is possible as
well as the technological and broad social…understanding
to bring his vision to reality.

66
 Engineering and Society
“Engineering is a great profession. There is a fascination
of watching a figment of the imagination emerge, through
the aid of science, to a plan on paper. Then it moves to
realization in stone or metal or energy. Then it brings jobs
home to men. Then it elevates the standards of living and
adds to the comfort of life. That is the engineer's high
privilege….To the engineer falls the job of clothing the
bare bones of science with life, comfort, and hope…”
--Herbert Hoover
(US mining engineer & 3ist President of the US) (1874 -
1964)

67
 Defining Engineering
 “Engineering is that profession in which knowledge of the mathematical and natural sciences
gained by study, experience, and practice is applied with judgment to develop ways to utilize,
economically, the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of mankind.” (The
Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology – ABET, 1992)
 “Engineering is the application of scientific and mathematical principles to practical ends such
as the design, manufacture, and operation of efficient and economical structures, machines,
processes, and systems.”
 “Engineering is the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and the
convenience of people. In its modern form engineering involves people, money, materials,
machines, and energy. It is differentiated from science because it is primarily concerned with
how to direct to useful and economical ends the natural phenomena which scientists discover
and formulate into acceptable theories. Engineering therefore requires above all the creative
imagination to innovate useful applications of natural phenomena. It seeks newer, cheaper,
better means of using natural sources of energy and materials.” (Science and Technology
Encyclopedia, McGraw Hill)
 Engineering is the professional art of applying science to the optimum conversion of the
resources of nature to the uses of humankind. (Encyclopedia Britannica)
 Engineering is the application of science and mathematics by which the properties of matter
and the sources of energy in nature are made useful to people (Merriam-Webster Dictionary)

68
 Defining Engineering
“ Scientist discovers that which exists. An engineer
creates that which never was”
o Theodore von Karman (1881-1963)

69
 Engineering and Ethics
If we accept these definitions of engineering, it is
crucial to realize the centrality of ethical concerns
at the core of the engineering enterprise
Concern for social well being and humanity are
part of the very definition of engineering
Assuming the intellectual rigor of these
definitions, the need of ethics in engineering id
nothing superfluous or added, but it is the essence
of the engineering profession

70
 Engineering and Social Values
 Today the consequences of human creativity in the areas of engineering,
technology, and science have reached measures that only a few decades ago
were unimaginable (e.g., genetic engineering, biotechnology,
nanotechnology, information technologies, artificial intelligence)
 This capacity and development mean an enormous amount of Power
 “Knowledge is Power” (Francis Bacon, 16??)
 With Power comes Responsibility
 Knowledge implies responsibility – the obligations of the engineer must be
commensurate with the level of his or her knowledge and power
 With Responsibility comes Obligation and Accountability
 The fact of living in a complex, global, and intercultural world coupled
with the unquestionable technological power wielded by governments and
societies
 Makes it necessary that engineers amplify the horizon of their technical
knowledge with humanistic values and harmonize their specialized
formation and development with knowledge of the norms, principles, and
ideals of ethics

71
 Engineering and Social Values
In view of the enormous power of technology and
science and the enormous potential risks they pose,
it is indispensable to stimulate and develop the
consciousness of the moral responsibility of
engineers
There exists an urgent need to complement
technical knowledge with the development of
values, attitudes, and knowledge that facilitate
professional and ethical excellence
It is necessary to develop social skills and team
work based in the respect for the proper values of
civic and social ethics

72
 Engineering Ethics
 Engineering ethics is derived from the awesome power of modern
technology
 The institutionalization of engineering ethics is a social necessity due
to the fact that the actions of engineers can have such enormous impact
on the lives of individuals, states, cultures, the environment, and the
entire planet
 An engineer is a professional who uses technologies—and the
knowledge that he possesses of diverse technical systems: objects of all
kinds, and in particular, machines, tools and systems—to create other
technical systems that satisfy human needs and well-being
 It is necessary to develop with rigor and depth a concept of ethics and
responsibility commensurate with our immense technological powers
in order to advance to a safer and more just world

73
 SONG OF THE ENGINEER

I take the vision which comes from dreams

And apply the magic of science and mathematics
Adding the heritage of my profession
And my knowledge of Nature’s materials
To create a design.

I organize the efforts and skills of my fellow workers

Employing the capital of the thrifty
And the products of many industries
And together we work toward our goal
Undaunted by hazards and obstacles.

And when we have completed our task

All can see
That the dreams and plans have materialized
For the comfort and welfare for all.

I am an Engineer.
I serve mankind
By making dreams come true.

(Unknown Author)
74
 Greatest Engineering Achievements of the
20th Century
 The National Academy of Engineering published a list of the
20th century's most notable engineering achievements. Some
of the top achievements include:

 electrification --automobile
 airplane --water supply and distribution
electronics --radio and television
 Computers --agricultural mechanization
 Spacecraft --household appliances
 internet; telephone --highways; imaging
 health technologies --petroleum technologies
 high-performance materials.
75
 Definitions of Engineering Ethics
“The study of the cases and moral decisions that face
individuals and organizations in the field of
engineering; as well as the study of questions relative
to the moral ideals, character, and political relations
between persons and corporations involved in
technolgocial activities” (Lenk, 1997)

76
 The Purpose of Engineering Ethics
The subject matter of engineering ethics can
neither consist of a set of procedures or concrete
values that are applied mechanically in
problematic situations nor the inculcation into a
certain set of beliefs
The purpose of engineering ethics is to increase
the skill of moral judgment and to develop the
moral autonomy of the engineer
To improve the skills necessary to think critically
about the ethical aspects and consequences of
engineering design and work

77
 Why Engineering Ethics?
Stressing the role of ethics in the study and
practice of engineering has at least three important
consequences:
It stimulates the recognition of the complexity of
ethical issues in engineering
It generates better skills at responding to and
solving moral problems
It shows that society considers ethics as essential
to the formation of excellent and outstanding
professionals

78
 Objectives of Engineering Ethics
 To compliment the technical knowledge derived from engineering
education with the development of moral values and the capacity for
sound moral judgment
 To compliment the technical perspective with ethical analysis that leads
to more responsible decision making
 Develop ethical decision making in engineering that will attend to the
exigency of universal moral principles and not only to the force of
legislation, the law, or fear of punishment
 To increase knowledge about the duties, obligations and moral
responsibilities of engineers in the practice of their professional labor
 To promote the knowledge and development of professional virtues in
order to produce excellent engineers that are committed to, and
contribute to, social progress and social justice

79
 Reintegrating Engineering and Philosophy
 “…Today's conflicts between the views that the humanities
hold of science and engineering and the views science and
engineering hold of the humanities weaken the very core of our
culture. Their cause is lack of integration in today's education
among subjects…A new…[multidisciplinary model]…is needed
to provide every educated person with a basic understanding of
the endeavors and instruments that help us address our world
and shape a new morality-the humanities, in the noblest sense
of the word, to civilize, science to understand nature, and
engineering, broadly defined, to encompass the kindred
activities that modify nature. Integration of these endeavors is
urgent…No domain can any longer be considered and learned
in isolation...”
o George Bugliarello,

80
 Engineering

Science Humanities

The Segregation of Academic Disciplines/Fields of Study

Natural Science Humanities

Where should we put the academic study of Engineering on this continuum?

81
 Engineering as a Humanity
Is Engineering more like Natural Science or more like
a field of studies in the Humanities?
If you look at the very definition of engineering, you
will see that engineering is intimately connected to the
humanities because it is the application of scientific
theory to solve certain problems of humanity—namely
it’s need for technology

82
 Some Remarks on the
History of the Engineering Profession

 Engineering was defined originally as the art of managing engines; in its modern
and extended sense, the art and science by which the mechanical properties of
matter are made useful to man in structures and machines (Webster’s Abridged
Dictionary)
 Until the Industrial Revolution there were only two kinds of engineers. The military
engineer built such things as fortifications, catapults, and, later, cannons. The civil
engineer built bridges, harbors, aqueducts, buildings, and other structures. During
the early 19th Century in England mechanical engineering developed as a separate
field to provide manufacturing machines and the engines to power them.
 The first British professional society of civil engineers was formed in 1818; that for
mechanical engineers followed in 1847. In the United States, the order of growth of
the different branches of engineering, measured by the date a professional society
was formed, is civil engineering (1852), mining and metallurgical engineering
(1871), mechanical engineering (1880), electrical engineering (1884), and chemical
engineering (1908). Aeronautical engineering, industrial engineering, and genetic
engineering are more modern developments.
 The first schools in the United States to offer an engineering education were the
United States Military Academy (West Point) in 1817, an institution now known as
Norwich Univ. in 1819, and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1825.

83
 Limitations of Paramountcy Clause
 The “paramountcy clause” in engineering codes of ethics obligates
engineers to “hold paramount” (i.e., above all) the health, safety, and
welfare of individuals, groups, and societies that may be impacted by
technological innovation and the implementation of technological systems
 “The ‘paramountcy’ principle [in the engineering codes of ethics] imposes
an impossible burden of responsibility on individual engineers.” (Baum,
1990)
 Most decisions involving complex technologies in our society cannot be
made by one individual or one individual group alone and there is no
defensible justification for engineers—individually or collectively—to take
the decision-making responsibility onto themselves.
 The only morally justifiable procedure for making decisions in such
complex cases is for all affected parties or their delegated representatives to
be provided with all of the available information relevant to the decision
and for them to have an equitable say in the final decision

84
 Limitations of Paramountcy Clause
 “To promote the health, welfare, and safety of society…”

 They are not required to promote the good but they are
morally obligated to exercise reasonable care that their
activities do not contribute to the bringing about of harm
such as death, pain, disability, loss of opportunity or loss
of overall happiness.
 The social responsibilities of engineers according to the
risk and public consent model are:
1. Recognize the right of each individual potentially affected by a
project to participate to an appropriate degree in the making of
decisions concerning the project
2. Do everything in their power to provide complete, accurate, and
understandable information to all potentially affected parties

85
 Limitations of Paramountcy Clause
 Engineers have an obligation to make reasonable efforts to
find out what the client or company intends to do with their
invention, research, or design, or product
 The primary social responsibility of engineers and
scientists is to avoid causing harm
 “The most meaningful question that can be asked
concerning engineering ethics is ‘What can reasonably be
done to minimize the risks associated with the work of
engineers’?”
 Critics claim that it is too much to ask of engineering to
honor the “principle of beneficence,” that is, the principle
that asks engineers to not only make sure that their
innovations do not harm society, but that their designs and
inventions actively help and benefit society

86
 The Social and Professional Responsibilities of Engineers
by Deborah Johnson

I. “Guns for Hire”

Engineers should provide their skills to anyone irrespective of moral convictions
(within limits of law)

II. Personal and Professional Values

Engineers should refuse to work on projects they deem to conflict with their
(personal) morals

III. Risk and Public Consent

Engineers should refuse to work on projects that increase societal risk or degrade
public safety unless the public is informed and consents
87
 The Social and Professional Responsibilities of Engineers
by Deborah Johnson

“Guns for Hire”

Engineers should provide their skills to anyone irrespective of moral convictions

(within limits of law)

PRINCIPLES PROBLEMS

• Suggests that engineers can and • Contradicts very idea of a profession

should act amorally • Assumes market and regulation will
• It is not fair or useful to have
engineers impose their personal views properly filter out bad projects and
on society give the public what it wants or is
best for it
• The “system” bears all the
88
responsibilities
 Engineers as “Guns for Hire”
The “guns for hire” attitude is a rationalization which
allows engineering to avoid social responsibilities

89
 The Social and Professional Responsibilities of Engineers
by Deborah Johnson

Personal and Professional Values

Engineers should refuse to work on projects they deem to conflict with their
(personal) morals

PRINCIPLES PROBLEMS

• Individual conscience used to • Principle empty of content

make
professional judgments
• Engineers should direct their skills
only for projects of positive value to
humanity
• Matters of conscience, and matters
90
of safety and welfare of society
(what does “positive” mean?)
• Fails to draw the line between
personal and professional ethics
(too much reliance on personal choices
to decide what is ethical)
• Fails to provide ethical guidelines
for engineers to follow
 The Social and Professional Responsibilities of Engineers
by Deborah Johnson

Risk and Public Consent

Engineers should refuse to work on projects that increase societal risk or degrade
public safety unless the public is informed and consents

PRINCIPLES PROBLEMS

• Engineers views are not imposed • Impractical to obtain consent of

on public or implement in some
society situations (how to deal with non-
• Engineers can be assured the unanimous consent; what if people
public disagree?; who makes the decisions?)
has consented to “acceptable risks” • Engineers are not assigned the
responsibility to determine whether or
not adequate consent is given
91
 The Social and Professional
Responsibilities of Engineers

What do social responsibilities of engineers require for military research?

“Guns for Hire” Personal and Risk and

Professional Values Public Consent

Military Research Questions:

(1) Is it “good” for humanity?
(2) Are those affected informed about it?
(3) The logic of secrecy?

Conclusions:

• Provides a framework for analysis (not a solution) about issues of military research
• Engineers should not abdicate their responsibilities (cannot justify : GFH view)
92
• Ethical issues in military research are matters of both personal conscience and professional judgment
 Do Engineers Have Social Responsibilities?
By Deborah Johnson

The Concept of Responsibility

Role Responsibility

Engineering Practice Deducing the Social Three Levels of

Responsibilities of Engineers Analysis

Ordinary Morality Social Contract

1. Individual role responsibility
Comparison 2. Rules of the profession
To other Professions 3. Highest goods and Principles

Social Responsibility Questions:

(1) Does the American engineering system assign responsibility to engineers?
(2) Should society assign special social responsibilities to engineers?
93 (3) If so, on what ethical foundations?
 Deducing the Social Responsibilities of Engineers
(Understanding the logical foundations of an Engineer’s duty towards social responsibility)

I. Social Contract Theories

Society grants a profession special benefits in return for a promise of certain standards of behavior

Rights and responsibilities of individual professionals arise from social arrangements hypothetically
agreed because they are in the rational self interest of both parties

II. Theories of “Ordinary Morality”

• The “Due No Harm” Principle

• Other things being equal, it is wrong to harm others

• Other things being equal, one should exercise due care to avoid
contributing to significantly harming others

The Principle of Proportionate Care: “When one is in a position to contribute greater harms or
when one is in a position to play a more critical part in producing harm than is another person, one
must exercise greater care to avoid so doing”
94
 Deducing the Social Responsibilities of Engineers

I. Social Contract Theories

Engineers Society

(1) Autonomy (1) promise to design and produce safe and

(2) Funding and educational opportunities reliable technologies
(3) Control over licensing and entry requirements (2) promise to regulate themselves in
(4) High prestige and economic standing providing their services

Problems:

1. The rights to do engineering work is not reserved for engineers

(counterpoint): The rights only apply to “licensed” engineers
(P.E.s)—a small number or practicing engineers

2. Engineers do not exercise sufficient autonomy or power to

protect society
(counterpoint): the “profession” of engineering, in instituting
mechanisms for regulating its members, receives “contractual”
rights and therefore bears collective (professional) responsibility
95
 Deducing the Social Responsibilities of Engineers

II. Theories of “Ordinary Morality”

Principles:
1. Proportionate care: “When one is in a position to contribute greater harms or when one is in a
position to play a more critical part in producing harm than is another person, one must exercise
greater care to avoid so doing”
2. A direct connection between one’s power to affect a situation and one’s responsibility to
take care
3. Engineers have special expertise and engineering projects do pose potentially grave
social harms (risks)

Problems:

1. Does not apply just to engineers (managers have the power; engineers lack autonomy)
2. The concept “exercising due care” is vague (whistle blowing, other acts of dissent)
3. The focus on “harm” shifts attention from what engineering projects do: pose RISKS
4. The issue is not: “Will I contribute to significant harm?; rather it is “How much risk will
there be?” “Is the risk worth the benefit?” “What is an acceptable degree of risk?”
5. Engineer-Management relations (Ford Pinto; Challenger; DC-10): Engineers acted
responsibly; Managers acted irresponsibly)
96
 Three Levels of Analysis
1. Individuals, roles, and responsibilities
2. Institutions, Rules, Practices, Corporate Culture, Professional Organizations
3. The Ultimate Ends the Profession should serve (Highest goods and Principles)

Individual actions in a role are justified by appealing to the rights and responsibilities
attached to the role (rules and practices of an institution), and we justify the system or
rights and responsibilities of the institution (professional organization) by a appealing to an
ultimate principle). Hence, all three of these levels are interrelated and should be more
meaningfully integrated
Example: Doctor refuses to assist in euthanasia (action), justified by a set of role
responsibilities such as doctor should never intentionally harm a patient (role
responsibility), justified by appeal to a system of medical practice such a Hippocratic Oath
(Rules of Profession), which is justified by an ultimate principle—Human Health

“In seeking an account of the social responsibilities or a profession or its members,

we must work at the middle level. We must seek an understanding of a profession as a set of
social arrangements which must be justified by something higher, but not completely
determined by the higher good or principle. We must also understand that such a system
might require members to do things not expected or required of non-members.”
97
 The Ultimate Purpose of Engineering
Does the profession of engineering serve a higher
purpose, like the professions of medicine (health), law
(justice), professors (education)?
Serving a higher purpose means that it serves a crucial
social value
This value is crucial to society because it is deemed
necessary for social existence and social flourishment

98
 Do Engineers have Special Social Responsibilities?
1. Does the system of engineering in America assign special responsibilities to engineers?
2. Should we assign stronger, special social responsibilities to American engineers?

nswer to the first question: ambiguous.

Engineering Codes require social responsibility, but large corporations in which
engineers work require company loyalty and not commitment to human well-being
Public attitudes toward ethical engineers also ambiguous: whistle blowers not
properly protected

Answer to the second question: not yet formulated

. Would have to determine the “ends” of engineering and then show how assigning
stronger social responsibilities to engineer would further these “ends”
. What are the “ends” of engineering—Human well-being and Safety
. Definitions of engineering:
A. The application of science and mathematics by which the properties of matter and
the sources of energy in nature are made useful to people in structures, machines,
products, systems, and processes (Webster’s Ninth Collegiate)
B. The application of science in order to solve human problems
C. Applying science for the benefit of humanity

99
 The Impacts of Technology on Society:

Engineering, Technology, and Society

 All technologies trigger side effects; many being harmful to some groups of
people (set of stakeholders)
 All technologies pose risks from accidents triggered by technical, human
factors, organizational systems, or socio-cultural factors. Some of these
risks are of an unprecedented scale and geographical distribution
 Therefore, disaster prevention must be integrated at the first stages of
engineering design
 Some technologies trigger unintended consequences, many being harmful
to some groups of people (set of stakeholders)
 Thesis: It is part of the professional responsibility of engineers to be aware
of the ways in which technology interacts with the larger society and its
citizens, especially as this interaction involves Values

100
 Three Theories of the Technology- Society
Relationship
Technological Optimism – All technology is good
(“you can’t stop progress”)

Technological Pessimism – Luddite rejection of

the excesses of technology (Luddites were English
crafts workers in the nineteenth who destroyed the
new machines that were taking their jobs)

Technological Democratism – Value-Laden

Technology must be controlled democratically

101
 Technological Optimism
Thesis: Technology gives rise to powerful enabling
factors which greatly enhance human powers and
helps maximize human freedom, decreases human
disease, and creates abundant material wealth and
well-being which heightens improved social standards

102
 Technological Pessimism
 Antithesis: Technological Determinism
 Technology can have a life of its own
 It exhibits an inner logic or momentum of development that makes it
autonomous and beyond human control
 Technological development takes place without a plan and without
regard to values and to the final “ends” and purposes of technology
 The influence of technology is all-pervasive
 The level of technology in any period in history determines the way in
which the majority of people can earn their living and spend the
majority of their time
 The comforts and advantages of technology are like addictions that
“hook” us
 Those who try to rebel are rendered ineffective and ultimately
destroyed

103
 Technological Democratism
Synthesis: Technology is mediated, both acting on
and acted upon by society. Technology is so
powerful that philosophical thought about its
development and use is seriously needed
Responsibility of being accountable for the effects
of technology on our lives and the ways in which
technology may involve values and possible
hidden social agendas
Responsibility for engineers, corporations, and
society to deliberate together about how
technology can best be developed and used to
promote the social and human good

104
 Professional Dilemma
On the one hand, professionals like engineers may
sometimes do things for clients/employers with which
they do not completely agree with morally
Lawyers – defend a client’s foreclosure of a poor family
Doctors – contraception; abortion
Engineers – military; environment
On the other hand, professionals are supposed to be
independent moral agents and not just guns for hire
As possessors of expert knowledge, professionals of expert
knowledge, they have a special obligation to the public
welfare

105
 Solution – Engineers Must Think Philosophically and
Ethically About Technology and Social Values: Five Theses
1. Technology can be used to implement political and
social values
2. Technology can change our life world. It produces
“forms of life”
3. Technology can change our relationship to nature
4. Technology can require a certain type of political or
social organization
5. Technology can have embedded values

106
Thank you