Topic 3: - THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

The term muscle tissue refers to all the contractile tissues of the body: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle.

1. the Skeletal muscle

skeletal muscle tissue and connective tissues that makeup individual muscle organs, such as the biceps
brachi muscle.
I. Have well developed cross striations (interdigitating thick and thin filaments).
II. Voluntary muscle tissue.
III. Cells are long and multinucleated.
IV. Contract only in response to stimuli (no syncytial between cells).

2. Cardiac muscle
Cardiac muscle tissue is located in the heart and is therefore considered part of the cardiovascular system.
i. Have cross striation (banding pattern of thick and thin filaments).
ii. Involuntary muscle tissue.
iii. Cells are branched and mononucleotide.
iv. Have intercalated disc with gap junctions.

3. Smooth muscle tissue

of the intestines is part of the digestive system , whereas smooth muscle tissue of the urinary bladder is part
of the urinary system and so on.
Non-striations/Smooth Muscle
Alternating dark and light bands are absent.
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Type Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle smooth muscle.

Location skeletal associated Heart & its vessels Visceral organ

Sheath Ep , peri, & Endomysium Sheaths around

endomysium fiber bundle

Cell shape Long cylinder Short ranching Small spendle

anastomising

Number & location of One per cell Usually One per cell One per cell
nuclei peripheral central central

Cross striations Present Present Absent

Intercalated disc Absent Present Absent

Function Voluntry Involuntry Involntry

Growth & generation hypertrophy hypertrophy hypertrophy

response &hyperplasia

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 Functions of muscle tissue
• Through sustained contraction or alternating
contraction and relaxation, muscle tissue has
three key functions:
1. producing motion:- Attaches to bones to provide
voluntary movement.
2. providing stabilization, and Helps maintain
posture.
3. generating heat:- During contractions provide
heat and energy.
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 Function of muscle
1. Motion: Motion is obvious in movements such as
a. Movement of body part -walking and running, and in localized movements,
such as grasping a pencil or nodding the head.
b. movement of fluid and semisolid through the body (blood, lymph, food, bile,
urine, semen, feces….)
C. Movement of new born through birth canal.
2. Stabilizing body positions and regulating the volume of cavities in the body:
skeletal muscle contractions maintain the body in stable positions, such as
standing or sitting.
Postural muscles display sustained contractions when a person is awake, for
example, partially contracted neck muscles hold the head upright. In addition,
the volumes of the body cavities are regulated through the contractions of
skeletal muscles. For example muscles of respiration regulate the volume of the
thoracic cavity during the process of breathing.
3. Thermo genesis (generation of heat). As skeletal muscle contracts to perform
work, a by-product is heat. Much of the heat released by muscle is used to
maintain normal body temperature. Muscle contractions are thought to
generate as much as 85% of all bodybyheat.
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 Function of muscle
• Skeletal muscles are responsible for all
locomotion
• Cardiac muscle is responsible for coursing the
blood through the body
• Smooth muscle helps maintain blood pressure,
and squeezes or propels substances (i.e., food,
feces) through organs
• Muscles also maintain posture, stabilize joints,
and generate heat
Some protect internal organs.
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 Functional Characteristics of Muscles or
Physiologic Characteristics of muscle tissue
Muscle tissue has four principal characteristics that enable it to carry out its
functions and thus contribute to homeostasis.
1. Excitability (irritability), a property of both muscle and nerve cells
(neurons), is the ability to respond to certain stimuli by producing
electrical signal called action potentials (impulses). For example, the
stimuli that trigger action potentials are chemicals-neurotransmitters,
released by neurons, hormones distributed by the blood.
2. Contractility is the ability of muscle tissue to shorten and thicken
(contract), thus generating force to do work. Muscles contract in
response to one or more muscle action potentials.
3. Extensibility means that the muscle can be extended (stretched) without
damaging the tissue. Most skeletal muscles are arranged in opposing
pairs. While one is contracting, the other not only relaxed but also
usually is being stretched.
4. Elasticity means that muscle tissue tends to return to its original shape
after contraction or extension. the ability to receive and respond to
stimuli
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 Muscle structure
Connective Tissue Component
Terms
1. Epimysium: a connective tissue which ensheaths the entire muscle.
2. Perimysium: a connective tissue that ensheaths the fascicles
3. Endomysium: a sheath that covers each muscle fiber. Each one is the continuation of
the other.
4. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: a tubular network that divides the individual skeletal
muscle fiber into myofibrils.
5. Sarcolemma: a true plasma membrane of skeletal muscle fiber.
6. α-actinin: a protein that connects actin to the z-line.
7. Myoplasm/sarcoplsam: cytoplasm of the muscle cell.
8. Desmin: a protein that links adjacent myofibrils, binding z lines to plm
9. Myosin: the thick contractile protein.
10. Actin: the thin contractile protein.
11. Dystropin: actin binding protein linking transmembrane protein, β-
dystroglycan, in the sarcolemma with cytoplasmic protein syntrophins (α-
dystroglycan, (sarcoglycan, α, β, γ, δ))
12. Titin: tethers myosin to z lines, serves as a scaffold for sarcomere.
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 A skeletal muscle
• is an organ composed mainly of striated muscle cells and
connective tissue.
• Each skeletal muscle has two parts; the connective tissue sheath
that extend to form specialized structures that aid in attaching
the muscle to bone and the fleshy part the belly or gaster.
• The extended specialized structure may take the form of a cord,
called a tendon; alternatively, a broad sheet called an
aponeurosis may attach muscles to bones or to other muscles,
as in the abdomen or across the top of the skull.
• A connective tissue sheath called facia surrounds and separates
muscles.
• Connective tissue also extends into the muscle and divides it
into numerous muscle bundles (fascicles).
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 There are three connective tissue components
that cover a skeletal muscle tissue.
• These are:
1. Epimysium─a connective tissue sheath that
surrounds and separates muscle.
2. Perimysium─a connective tissue that
surrounds and holds fascicles together.
3. Endomysium─a connective tissue that
surrounds each muscle fibre.

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 Structural arrangement and contractile unit

12

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 Muscle contractions
• The thick myofilaments are composed of a protein called
myosin.
• Each myosin filament has small regular projections
known as crossbridges.
• The crossbridges lie in a radial fashion around the long
axis of the myofilament.
• The rounded heads of the cross bridges lie in apposition
to the thin myofilaments.
• The thin myofilaments are composed of a complex
protein called actin, arranged in a double stranded coil.
• The actin filaments also contain two additional proteins
called troponin and tropomysin.
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 Muscle contraction…
• fibre the myosin crossbridges are prevented from
combining with the actin filaments by the presence of
troponin and tropomysin.
• When a nerve impulse reaches a muscle fibre it is
conducted over the sarcolemma and in to the T-tubules,
then to the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
• The sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium ions into
the sacrcoplasm.
• The liberated calcium ions combine with troponin
causing it to push tropomysin away from the receptor
sites on the actins filaments.
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• The myosin crossbridges interact with the actin receptor sites
and pull the actins myofilaments toward the centre (H-zone)
of each sarcomere.
• The bond between the myosin crossbridges and actin breaks
down under the influence of enzymes and the crossbridges
are then free to rejoin with other actin receptor sites.
• The actin filaments do not shorten but slide past the myosin
filaments overlapping them so that the Z lines are drawn
toward each other, shortening the sarcomere. As each
sarcomere shortens the whole muscle fibre contracts.
• Relaxation of the muscle fibres occurs when the calcium ions
are actively reabsorbed by the sarcoplasmic reticulum thus
allowing troponin and tropomysin to again inhibit the
interaction of the actins andbymyosin
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filaments 14
 Energy Requirements for Muscle Contraction
• Contraction of skeletal muscle requires adenosine
triphosphate (ATP).
• The ATP releases energy when it breaks down to adenosine
diphosphate (ADP) and a phosphate (P), some of the energy
is used to move the crossbridges and some of the energy is
released as heat.
• ATP→ADP + P + Energy (for crossbridge movement) +Heat
• The ATP required for muscle contraction is produced
primarily in numerous mitochondria located with in the
muscle fibres.
• Because ATP is a very short-lived molecule and rapidly
degenerates to the more stable ADP, it is necessary for
muscle cells to constantly produce ATP.
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 Energy required for…….
ATP is produced by anaerobic or aerobic respiration.
• Anaerobic respiration, which occurs in the absence
of oxygen, results in the breakdown of glucose to
yield ATP and lactic acid.
• Aerobic respiration requires oxygen and breaks
down glucose to produce ATP, carbon dioxide, and
water . Compared with anaerobic respiration,
aerobic respiration is much more efficient.
• The breakdown of glucose molecule by aerobic
respiration theoretically can produce 19 times as
much ATP as is produced by anaerobic respiration.
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• In addition, aerobic respiration can utilize a greater
variety of nutrient molecules to produce ATP than
can anaerobic respiration. For example, aerobic
respiration can use fatty acids to generate ATP.
Although anaerobic respiration is less efficient than
aerobic respiration, it can produce ATP when lack of
oxygen limits aerobic respiration.
• By utilizing many glucose molecules, anaerobic
respiration can rapidly produce much ATP, but only
for a short period.
• Resting muscles or muscles undergoing long-term
exercise such as a long-distance bicycling on level
ground depend primarily on aerobic respiration for
ATP synthesis.
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 Energy requirement…
• Although some glucose is used as an energy source, fatty
acids are a more important energy source during sustained
exercise as well as during resting conditions.
• On the other hand, during intense exercise such as riding a
bicycle up a steep hill, anaerobic respiration provides
enough ATP to support intense muscle Glucose Fatty acids
Anaerobic respiration Aerobic respiration 2 ATP + Lactic acid
38 ATP +CO2 +H2O Contractions for approximately 1 to 2
minutes.
• Anaerobic respiration is ultimately limited by depletion of
glucose and a buildup of lactic acid within the muscle fibre.
• Lactic acid can also irritate muscle fibres, causing short-term
muscle pain.
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 Energy ………
• Muscle pain that lasts for a couple of days following exercise,however, results
from damage to connective tissue and muscle fibres within the muscle.
• Muscle fatigue results when ATP is used during muscle contraction faster
than it can be produced in the muscle cells,and lactic acid builds up faster
than it can be removed. As a consequence, ATP levels are too low to sustain
crossbridge movement and the contractions become weaker and weaker.
• For most of us, however, complete muscle fatigue is rarely the reason we stop
exercising. Instead, we stop because of psychological fatigue, the feeling that
the muscles have tired.
• A burst of activity in a tired athlete as a result of encouragement from
spectators is an example of how psychological fatigue can be overcome.
• After intense exercise, the respiration rate remains elevated for a period.
Even though oxygen is not needed for anaerobic production of ATP molecules
for contraction, oxygen is needed to convert the lactic acid produced by
anaerobic respiration back to glucose. The increased amount of oxygen
needed in chemical reactions to convert lactic acid to glucose is the oxygen
debt. After the oxygen debt is paid, respiration rate returns to normal.
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 Sequence of Events in Contraction and
Relaxation of Skeletal Muscle.
Steps in contraction
1. Discharge of motor neuron.
2. Release of transmitter (acetylcholine) at motor end-plate.
3. Binding of acetylcholine to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.
4. Increased Na+ and K+ conductance in end-plate membrane.
5. Generation of end-plate potential.
6. Generation of action potential in muscle fibers.
7. Inward spread of depolarization along T tubules.
8. Release of Ca2+ from terminal cisterns of sarcoplasmic reticulum and
diffusion to thick and thin filaments.
9. Binding of Ca2+ to troponin C, uncovering myosin-binding sites on
actin
10. ormation of cross-linkages between actin and myosin and sliding of
thin on thick filaments, producing movement.
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 Steps in relaxation
(1) Ca2+ pumped back into sarcoplasmic reticulum.
(2) Release of Ca2+ from troponin
(3) Cessation of interaction between actin and myosin.
Regulatory function of ATP
 Actin + Myosin +ATP + Ca2+ Contraction
 Actin+ Myosin + ATP – Ca2+ Relaxation
 In the absence of Ca2+ ATP is not hydrolyzed.
 3 ATP molecules are needed:
1. For energizing the myosin cross-bridges
2. For dissociation of actinmyosin complex and initiation of
relaxation
3. To pump out Ca2+ from the sacroplasm to sequester it into the
SR (Ca2+-Mg2+ - pump)
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Summary
Discharge of motor neuron
↓
Release of Ach at motor endplate
↓
Binding of Ach to nAchR
↓
↑gNa+ and gK + in endplate membrane
↓
Generation of EPP
↓
Generation of AP in muscle fibers
↓
Inward spread of depolarization along T-tubules
↓
Release of Ca2+ from terminal cisterns of SR and diffusion to thick and thin filaments
↓
Binding of Ca2+ to troponin C, uncovering myosin-binding sites on actin
↓
Formation of cross-linkages between actin and myosin and sliding of thin on thick
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filaments, producing movement
Steps in relaxation
Ca2+ pumped back into SR
↓
Release of Ca2+ from troponin
↓
Cessation of interaction between actin and
Myosin

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 Types of muscle contraction
• Muscle contractions are classified as either isotonic or isometric.
• In isotonic contractions, the amount of tension produced by the muscle
is constant during contraction, but the length of the muscle changes; for
example, movement of the fingers to make fist.
• In isometric contractions, the length of the muscle does not change, but
the amount of tension
• increases during the contraction process. Clenching the fist harder and
harder is an example. Most movements are a combination of isometric
and isotonic contractions. For example, when shaking hands, the muscles
shorten some distance (isotonic contractions) and the degree of tension
increases (isometric contractions).
• Isometric contractions are also responsible for muscle tone,the constant
tension produced by muscles of the body for long periods. Muscle tone is
responsible for posture; for example,keeping the back and legs straight,
the head held in upright position, and the abdomen from bulging.

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 Muscle attachments
• Most muscles extend from one bone to another and cross
at least one movable joint. Muscle contraction causes
most body movements by pulling one of the bones
towards the other across the movable joint. Some
muscles are not attached to bone at both ends. For
example, some facial muscles attach to the skin, which
moves as the muscles contract.
• The points of attachment of each muscle are its origin
and insertion . At these attachments points, the muscle is
connected to the bone by a tendon.
• The origin is the most stationary end of the muscle and
• the insertion is the end of the muscle attached to the
bone undergoing the greatest movement.
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 Muscle attach….
• Some muscles have more than one origin, but the principle is the same−the
origin act to anchor or hold the muscle so that the force of contraction causes
the insertion to move. For example, the biceps brachii causes the radius to
move, resulting in flexion of the forearm. The triceps brachii muscle has three
origins; two on the humerus and one on the scapula.
• The insertion of the triceps brachii is on the ulna and contraction results in
extension of the forearm.
• Several muscles contract while others relax to produce almost any movement
you can imagine.
• Of all the muscles contracting simultaneously, the one mainly responsible for
producing a particular movement is called the prime mover for that
movement.
• The other muscles that help in producing the movement are called synergists.
• As prime movers and synergist muscles at a joint contract, other muscles
called antagonists, relax.
• When those antagonist muscles contract, they produce a movement opposite
to that of those prime movers and their synergist muscles.
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 MUSCLES OF THE BODY REGIONS
• Attachments of muscle;
• Most muscle span joints and have at a least two attachment sites
• I.e. Origin and insertion
1. Origin:-attachment of muscle that remain relatively fixed during
muscular contractions.
• The stationary point of muscle (fixed) attachment.
• Generally amore proximal or axial locations
2. Insertion:- the movable portion of muscle during muscle contraction
• The movable point of attachment
• Generally more distal or appendicular attachment
• Attachment of muscle that move during muscular contractions.
• Between two mass of muscle on the shat of the bone but never a
joint called Belly or gaster.
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 Two modes of attachment;
1. Fleshy attachment- Direct attachment i.e. epimysium directly attach to periosteum
of bone or perichondrium of cartilage.
2. Fibrous attachment- Indirect attachment i.e. epimysium attach to tendon or
aponeurosis.
• Depending on their action muscles may be;
1. Prime mover; muscle causing the desired (agonist) i.e. agonist – muscle that take
action that mimics with another muscle.
2. Antagonistic:- muscle opposing the agonist i.e. biceps brachi and tricepes brachi
- Muscle that oppose a movement or reverse it.
3. Synergists – muscle completing the action of the prime mover
• Are muscles that assist a prime mover by stabilizing a joint crossed by tendon of
prime mover, allowing them to produce more effective movements. i.e. effect of two
muscle greater than individual effects i.e. 1 +1 >2
4. Fixator: - stabilize or fix one side of muscle for the maximum action on the other side.
Or i.e. abductor, adductor, flexor, extensor
• Naming skeletal muscles:
i. Biceps muscle contracts to raise the lower arm towards the shoulder i.e. prime
mover
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ii. Triceps muscle- oppose this action and straighten the elbow i.e. antagonist.
 Naming skeletal muscle
• Most of the skeletal muscles are named according to one or
more of the following basis:
1. Direction of muscle fibres relative to the midline of the body or
longitudinal axis of a structure
a) Rectus means the fibres run parallel to the midline of the body
or longitudinal axis of a structure. Example, rectus abdominis
b) Transverse means the fibres run perpendicular to the midline
longitudinal axis of a structure. Example,transverse abdominis
c) Oblique means the fibres run diagonally to the midline
longitudinal axis of a structure. Example, external oblique
2. Location−structure to which a muscle is found closely related
• Example: Frontal, a muscle near the frontal bone Tibialis
anterior,
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 Naming skeletal muscles…….
3. Size−relative size of the muscle
• Maximus means largest. Example, gluteus maximus
• Minimus means smallest. Example, gluteus minimus
• Longus means longest. Example, Adductor longus
• Brevis means short. Example, Peroneous brevis
4. Number of origins−number of tendons of origin Biceps means two origins.
Example, biceps brachii Triceps means three origins. Example, triceps brachii
Quadriceps means four origins. Example, quadriceps femoris
5. Shape −relative shape of the muscle
• Deltoid means triangular. Example, deltoid
• Trapezius means trapezoid. Example, trapezius
• Serratus means saw-toothed. Example, serratus anterior
• Rhomboideus means rhomboid or diamond shape. Example, Rhomboideus
major
6. Origin and insertion−sites where muscles originates and inserts
• Example, sternocleidomastoid−originates on sternum and clavicle and inserts
on mastoid process of temporal bone.
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 Naming skeletal muscles
7. Action−principal action of the muscle
a. Flexor: decrease the angle at a joint. Example, flexor carpiradialis
b. Extensor: increases the angle at a joint. Example, extensor carpiulnaris
c. Abductor: moves a bone away from the midline. Example, abductor policis
brevis
d. Adductor: moves a bone closer to the midline. Example, adductor longus
e. Levator: produces an upward movement. Example, levator labii superioris
f. Depressor: produces a downward movement. Example, depressor labii
inferioris
g. Supinator: turns the palm upward or anteriorly. Example,supinator
h. Pronator: turns the palm downward or posteriorly.Example, pronator teres
i. Sphincter: control the size of an opening. Example,external anal sphincter
j. Tensor: makes a body part more rigid. Example, tensor fasciae latae
k. Rotator: moves a bone around its longitudinal axis. Example, obturator
externus
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 Principal skeletal muscles
• Although there are over 700 individual skeletal
muscles in the human body, an appreciation and
understanding of skeletal muscles can be
accomplished by concentrating on the large
superficial muscles and muscle groups. Table 6-1
through Table 6-4 summarizes the origin, insertion,
and action of these muscles. Refer to Figures 6-4
and 6-5 as you study the attachments and action of
these muscles, and try to figure out why each has
the name that it does.
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 Muscles of the body regions;-
• Muscles of the head: Divided into three groups, according to their
functions
1. Muscles of expression
2. Muscles of mastication
3. Muscles of the scalp
Muscles of expression
• Attached to the skin rather than the bone, so that they move the skin
and change the facial appearance.
• Small muscles raise and lower the eye brows, upper lids raise and lower
the angles of mouth and dilate the nostrils causing a look of surprise,
worry, happiness or sorrow. E.g. orbicularis oculi encircle the eyelid
margin
• Orbicularis oris encircle the oral margin ( lip)
• Buccinators – is principal muscle of the cheek and form the lateral wall of
the mouth
• Used for chewing and sucking.
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• Muscle of mastication
• Move the lower jaw up and down in biting and also from side to side and
back ward and for wards in chewing.
• These muscles are masseter (running to the angle of jaw from the
zygomatic arch), temporalis muscle (lying over the temporal bone and
inserted into the lower jaw) and which is the smallest muscle which run
from the skull to lower jaw.
• Supplied by branches of the V cranial nerve
• Masseter muscle is quadrilateral in shape arise above from the zygomatic
arch of temporal bone and inserted to lower jaw anterior to its angle.
• Muscle of the scalp;-
• Frontalis
• Occipitalis
• Two tiny muscles in the ear that control the movement of ear ossicles i.e.
tensor tympani inserted into handle of malleus.
• Stapedius- inserted into the neck of the stapes
• They act as dampers to prevent excessive movement of ossicles in
response to loud noise
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 2. Muscle of the neck: attaching the head to the trunk
• Consists of two large muscles i.e.
1. sternocleidomatstoid,
2. trapezius
• Sternocleidomastoid ...Naming muscle based on
attachment site of insertion come last
• Origin sternum and clavicles
• Insertion mastoid process of temporal bone
• Position the side of the neck running from the sternum
and clavicles to the mastoid process and surface of
temporal bone behind it.
• Contraction of one side dram the head to wards the
shoulder and turn the head while contraction of both
leads to flex the neck.
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 Neck muscle……
• Trapezius
• Lie over the back of the neck and shoulder and roughly triangular
• Origin occiput and spine of thoracic vertebrae
• Insertion clavicles and spine of scapula
• Whole contraction draw the shoulder back, and draw scapula up
and down when upper and lower portion are used separately and
respectively.
• Muscles of the trunk
• Chief muscles of the trunk can be grouped according to their
function
1. i.e. muscles moving shoulder
2. Muscles of respiration
3. Muscles forming abdominal wall
4. Muscles moving the hip
5. Muscles of the pelvis
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 I. Muscles moving shoulder
Chief muscles that move the shoulder are the powerful muscles covering the back and
front of the chest.
They are -pectoralis major and minor
-Trapezius
- Latissimusdoris
-Serratus anterior
Pectoralis cover the front of chest, running from sternum out to humerus
Latismusdorsi cover the back of the chest, and abdomen, running from the thoracic and
lumbar vertebrae and iliac crest out to the humerus
Form in front of and behind the armpit.
Serratusanterior - Position over the side of the thorax and under the scapula at the back.
• From posterior axioappendicular muscle of the shoulder (scapulohumoral muscles) that
connect axial with appendicular skeleton i.e. infraspinatus, supraspinatus,
subscapularis and teres minor are called rotator cuff muscles.
• II. Muscle of respirations;
• The chief muscle of respirations are
1. i.e. diaphragm
External intercostals muscle
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• Diaphragm: - dome shaped sheet of skeletal muscles that separate thoracic cavity from the
abdomen i.e. borderly muscle while centrally it is sheet of fibrous tissue tendon or
aponeurosis.
• Origin:- tip of sternum (sterna part) lower ribs and their cartilages (costal part) the first three
lumbar vertebrae
• Insertion:- central flattened tendon or aponeurosis called central tendon of diaphragm
• Have two portions;-
• Concave lower portion
• Covered by peritoneum, related right side to upper surface of liver and left side related to
the fundus of stomach and the spleen.
• Convex upper portion
• Covered by pleurae and either side related to the base of the lungs
• Its central portion is related to heart and pericardium.
• In posterior portion of diaphragm close to its origin from the lumbar vertebrae, are number
of opening called hiatuses for passage of
• Aorta  mid line
• Esophagus  slightly to the left
• Inferior venacava (IVC)  slightly to the right
• Diaphragm is very important muscle of respiration supplied by the phrenic nerve from
cervical plexus, damage to it leads to paralysis of diaphragm
• i.e. inspiration  contract become flattened
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 B .External intercostals muscles
• Are intercostals muscles (muscles between the ribs
which passfrom the lowr border of one ribs to upper
border of rib below which are eleven paris of muscles).
• The external intercostals muscles (EICM)
• Lie between the ribs more superficial
• Their fibres running sown and forward from one rib to
rib below
• Origin:- lower border or fibs above it
• Insertion:- upper border of ribs below it
• Function- draw the ribs upwards and out wards to
increase the size of the thorax from side to side and
from back to front.
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 c. Internal intercostals muscles
• Lie between the ribs, under external intercostals muscles
• Their fibres running down ward and back ward
• Origin – lower border of the rib above
• Insertion – upper border of he rib below
• Action- draw the ribs down wards and in wards to
decrease the size of thorax from side to side and from
back to front particularly in forced expiration
• Internal and external intercostals
• There are also accessory muscle of respiration during
forceful respirations i.e. trapezius – sternocliedomatstiod
muscles

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 3. Muscle forming abdominal wall
• Chief muscles of the abdominal wall are;
1. Rectus abdominus – forming front wall
2. External oblique
3. Internal oblique
4. Transverse abdominus
5. Quadrates lumborum
• The rectus abdominus
• Form anterior abdominal wall
• Its fibre is straight up and down ward i.e. rectus – straight
• Divided into two i.e. right and left by a line of fibrous tissue in the mid line of the body
called linea alba i.e. formed by the aponeurosis of right and left flat abdominal muscles.
• External oblique
• Direction- its fibre pass downward and forwards
• Origin from lower eight ribs
• Insertion- fan shaped manner into rectus sheath iliac crest and pubic bone
• The aponeurosis of the lower border of external oblique muscle between the anterior
and superior iliac spine and public spine, is thickened to form inguinal ligament
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( poupart’s ligaments)
• Internal oblique
• Internal to external oblique
• Origin- from iliac crest, inguinal ligaments
• Insertion- rectus sheath and lower ribs
• Direction- its fibres pass upward and medially and cross
those of external oblique
• Transverse muscle
• Horizontal muscle fibres
• Origin- arise from lower ribs iliac crest and ingunal ligaments
• Insertion- linea abla and pubic bone
• Muscle forming posterior abdominal wall and partly the hip
• Quadrates lumborum
• Extended from iliac crest upwards to the last 12th rib
• Form posterior wall of abdomen
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th
 Psoas muscle
• Muscle arises from the lumbar vertebrae that form posterior
abdominal wall
• Iliacus- arise from inner surface of Ilium and inserted together
with psoas muscle into lesser trochanter of femur.
• Posterior surface of kidney is related to the psoas and
quadrates lumborum muscles
N.B- transverse and oblique muscles of abdominal wall are
called flat muscles.
Function- protect abdominal viscera where is no bone elements
• Chief later flexor of the body
• Help to maintain intra abdominal pressure for forced
expiration
• Vomiting coughing venous return
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 Inguinal canal
• Is a canal that pierce the abdominal wall anterior to the groin
• Run just above inguinal ligaments obliquely
• It has:- floor through muscular caot
• Anterior wall
• Posterior wall
• Floor:- formed mainly by inguinal ligament
• Anterior wall;- consists of skin, fascia and aponeurosis of external
oblique muscle
• Posterior wall: - formed by peritoneum covered by fascia and
tendious insertion of the internal oblique and transverses muscle
called conjoined tendon.
• Passage for structures
• Male- spermatic cord from testicles
• Female- round ligaments of uterus run through it with associated
blood vessel and nerve
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 Hernia: -

• Is protrusion of tissue structure or parts of visceral organs though muscular tissue or

membrane from which it is normally contained.
• Has three parts i.e. orifice- through which it herniated, hernia sac
• & Contents
• Developed due to
• Pressure in the compartment of residing organ increased and boundary is weak or wakened
• Weakening of containing membrane or muscle is usually congenital i.e. tendency of hernia
run in families
• Increase in age, other illness, stretching of muscle during pregnancy or scar from previous
surgery etc.
• Pressure may cause the parts of the brain to herniate through narrowed portion of cranial
cavities or through foramen magnum increase pressure on the intervertebral disc as
produced by heavy lifting or lifting with improper technique
• – risk of herniations
According to their anatomical locations hernia may be
• Inguinal
• Femoral
• Incisional
• Umbilical
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• The most common type of hernia is inguinal hernia i.e. 75% of
abdominal hernia.
• Umbilical hernia
• Most common type in infant i.e. often resolves spontaneously.
• More frequently in obese and pregnant adult.
• Diaphragmatic hernia
• Result when the part of stomach protrudes into the chest cavity through
defect in diaphragmatic opening called hiatus i.e. it is also called hiatus
hernia i.e. either sliding none sliding.
• Complications of hernia
• Strangulations i.e. ischemia – necrosis- gangrene – fatal.
• Obstructions i.e. bowel- bowel content cannot pass i.e. cramp, later on
vomiting absence of flatus and absence of defection.
• Dysfunctioning :- sliding hernia of stomach may cause heart burn,
regurgitation and dysphagea
• - Non sliding leads to sense of fullness
• 05/23/2024
Lumbar disc hernia may cause sciatic by lali nerve pain etc. 46
 Muscles of the pelvis
• Collectively form the floor of the pelvic cavity or pelvic diaphragm.
• Composed of levator ani, coccygeus muscles.
• Levator ani
• Muscular sheet extending across the outlet of pelvis
• Important muscle which aid in defecations.
• Pierced in the middle line in female by three opening for passage of urethra,
vagina and rectum while two opening in male i.e. urethra and rectum.
• Muscles of the hip
• Muscle from the trunk moving the hip i.e. ilopsoas
• Psoas and iliocus
• Muscles of the buttock
• Gluteal muscle
• Gluteal maximus
• Gluteal medius
• Gluteal
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 Muscles of the buttock

• Form the rounded eminence of the buttock called gluteal muscles.

They are
1. - gluteal maximus
2. - Gluteal medius
3. - Gluteal minimus
Origin- arises from the back of the sacrum and Ilium.
Insertion- greater tronchanter of the femur (gluteal tuberosity of
femur for gluteal maximus) and iliotibial tract.
• Fascia which envelops all muscle of the thigh
• Gluteal maximus – most superficial and the largest of the three.
• These muscles are commonly used as the site for intramuscular
injection (IM) as they are thick and fleshy.
N.B:- use the outer upper quadrant as not no damage sciatic nerves
i.e. draw imaginary line from buttock fold ending or coccyx to right
left lateral then longitudinal lineby down
05/23/2024 lali from iliac crest then the 48
 Muscles of the lower limb
• Includes muscles of the
1. -thigh
2. -Leg
3. -Foot
Muscles of the thigh
• Can be described in three groups. i.e.
1. Anterior
2. Posterior and
3. Medial
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 Anterior group Includes

1. quadriceps extensor
2. Rectus femoris
3. Vastus medialis
4. Vastus lateralis
5. Vastus intermedius
• They extensor straighten the knee joint used in standing and powerful action on
kicking
• Has four heads is actually four muscle with common insertion into patella
• Made form one rectus (straight muscle) and three vastus muscle i.e. medial
intermediate and lateral.
• The vastus lateralis.- used for intramuscular injections as it situated well away
from blood vessels, nerves and lymphatic’s of the limb.
• Sartorius
• Also called tailor’s muscle run from the superior anterior iliac spine, across the
front of thigh to the inner side of the knee, inserted to the tibia.
• Assist in joint movement that occurs when sitting tailor wise flexing the hip and
05/23/2024 by lali 50
knee and rotating the femur.
 Posterior group
• Posterior muscles are called hamstrings i.e. strong tendons or strings that then
form on either side of the popliteal space, at the back of knee joint flexor muscles
of the knee
• Can be seen and felt readily when the knee is bent. They are
1. biceps femoris
2. Semitendinosus
3. Semimembranous
biceps femoris -It is so called biceps since its origin have two head from ischeal
tuberosity
-Inserted into the fibulae and lies on the out side of the back of thigh.
Semitendinosus - Due to the length of the tendon by which it is inserted to the tibia
- Origin – form ischial tuberosity &Lies in the middle of the back of the thigh.
Semimembranous - Due to its membraneous tendon
-Origin from ischeial tuberosity
-Insertion upper ends of the tibia and fibula
• Since the hamstring muscles having their origin above the hip joint and their
insertion below the knee joint, are capable
05/23/2024 by lali of producing movement, at both i.e.
51
 Medial groups Consists of three muscles
• i.e. adductor longus
• Adductor brevis
• Adductor magnus
• Origin – from pubic bone
• Insertion into femur
• Functions – thy adduct the thigh towards
midline

05/23/2024 by lali 52
 Posterior group-
1. Gluteus maximus
• Is the largest muscle in the body and cover large parts of
each buttock
• Connects the ilium, sacrum, and coccyx to the femur by
fascia of the thigh and extend the thigh
• Important to straighten the lower limb at the hip when a
person walk, run, or climbs and also raise the body form
sitting position
• Innervated by inferior gluteal nerves
2. Gluteus medius
• Partly covered by gluteus maximus
• Its fibre extend from ilium to femur
• Abduct the thigh and rotate medially
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•
 Posterior group……
3. Gluteus minimus
• Lies beneath the gluteus medius and its companion in
attachments and functions
• Innervated by superior gluteal nerves.
• Extensor muscles o the thigh
• Large, fleshy muscle group called quadriceps femoris which
occupies the front and side of the thigh, primary extensor of the
knee.
• Composed of four muscle parts i.e.
1. rectus femoris
2. Vastus lateralis
3. Vastus medialis
4. Vastus intermedius.
• They connect Ilium and femur to common patellar tendon, which
passes over the front of the knee
05/23/2024 by lali and attaches to patella 54
 Muscle of the legs
• Plantar flexors
• Gastrocnermius
• Soleu
• Slexor digitorum longus
• Dorsal flexors
• Tibialis anterior
• Extensor digitorum longus
• Gastrocnemius
• Found on the back of the leg form part of the calf
• Also called calf muscle
• Arise by two head from the femur
• Distal end joins the strong calcaneal tendon (achille tendon) which descend to the heel and
attaches to the calcaneus bone.
• Powerful plantar flexor of the foot that aids in pushing the body forward when a person walk
or runs
• Also flex the leg at the knee
• Soleus
• Beneath the gastrocnemius
• These two muscles (gastrocenemius and soleus) form the calf of the leg
• Arise from the tibia and fibula and extends by
05/23/2024 tolalithe heel by way of the calcaneal tendon.55
 Muscles of the arm
• Arm is one of the more freely movable parts of the body,
since muscles connect the humerus to regions of pectoral
girdle, ribs and vertebral column.
• These muscle can be grouped according to their functions
i.e. flexion, extension, abduction and rotations.
• They are flexor muscles Extensor muscles
• Coracobrachialis Teres major
• Pectoralis major Latissimusdors
• Abductors Rotators cuff
• Supraspinatus Subscapularis
• Deltoid Infraspinatus
Supraspinatus
Teres minor
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 Deltoid muscle
• Deltoid- have shape Greek letter delta shape
• Is thick triangular muscle that covers the shoulder joint
• Connect the clavicles and scapula to the lateral side of the
humerus and adduct the arm.
• Is important site for intramuscular injections, by marking
about 3 finger below the shoulder joint e.g. tetanus toxoid
(TT) vaccine for female of child bearing age (WCBA).
N.B:- site for intramuscular (Im) injection are
• Deltoid
• Gluteal muscle
• Thigh muscles i.e.- vastus lateralis
• -Vastus medialis
05/23/2024 by lali 57
 Muscle that move the forearm
• According to their function muscle that move the
fore arm includes flexor
1. Biceps brachi
2. Brachialis
3. Brachioradialis
4. Extensor
5. Triceps brachialis
• Rotators :-Muscles that rotate the forearm at
radioulnar joint i.e.
1. spinator
2. Pronator teres
Pronator quadrates
3.05/23/2024 by lali 58
 Muscles that move the hand
• Movement of the hand includes movement of wrist and fingers
• Many muscles move the wrist, hands and fingers
• Originate from distal end of humerus and radius and ulna
• They are grouped in to two i.e. flexor on anterior side to the forearm
Extensors on posterior side of the forearm.
1. Flexor muscles
• Flexor carpiradialis
• Flexor carpiulnaris
• Palmaris longus
• Flexordigitorum profundus
• Flexor digitorumsuperficialis
2. Extensor muscles
• Extensor carpiradialis longus
• Extensor caripi radialis brevis
• Extensor caripi ulnaris
05/23/2024 by lali 59
• Extensor digitorum.
 An Overview of the Major Skeletal Muscles antiorily

05/23/2024 by lali 60
 An Overview of the Major Skeletal Muscles postiriorly

05/23/2024 by lali 61
 10 have a nice time
05/23/2024 by lali 62