FUNCTIONAL NEUROANATOMY

The Nervous System and Behavior

Prof. Dr. Şakire Pöğün

 Summary
• Review the basic structure
of the neuron, including
the functional zones that
make each neuron an
information-processing
unit.
• Review major
aggregations of neurons
that form structures visible
to the naked eye, with
highlights of what we know
about the localization of
function within the brain.
Naomi Savage, Enmeshed Man (1972)
 Outline

• The Nervous System Is Composed of Cells

• The Nervous System Consists of Central and
Peripheral Divisions
• The Brain Is Described by Both Structure and
Function
• Specialized Support Systems Protect and
Nourish the Brain
• Newer Imaging Techniques Allow Us to Look
into the Living Human Brain
The Nervous System Is Composed of Cells
– The neuron doctrine defines neurons and their
connections
– The neuron has four structural divisions
specialized for information processing
– Neurons can be classified by shape, size, or
function
– Some glial cells support neural activity
– Some glial cells wrap around axons, forming
myelin sheaths
– The neuronal cell body and dendrites receive
information across synapses
– The axon is a specialized output zone
– Neurons and glial cells form information-
processing circuits
The Nervous System Consists of Central
and Peripheral Divisions

– The peripheral nervous system has three

components
– The central nervous system consists of the
brain and spinal cord
 The Brain Is Described by
Both Structure and Function

– Within the cerebral hemispheres are the basal

ganglia and the limbic system
– The diencephalon is divided into thalamus and
hypothalamus
– The midbrain has sensory and motor systems
– The cerebellum is attached to the pons
– The medulla maintains vital body functions
– The cerebral cortex performs complex cognitive
processing
 Specialized Support Systems
Protect and Nourish the Brain

– The cerebral ventricles are chambers filled

with fluid
– The brain has an elaborate vascular system
 Newer Imaging Techniques Allow Us to
Look into the Living Human Brain
– CT uses X rays to reveal brain structure
– MRI creates maps of the brain based on density
– PET maps radioactive tracers to produce images
of brain activity
– Functional MRI uses local changes in
metabolism to identify active brain regions
– Optical imaging uses near-infrared light to
visualize brain activity
– MEG creates maps of brain function from the tiny
magnetic fields of active neurons
– Sophisticated imaging techniques overcome
some of the limitations on other sources of
evidence
 Wilder Penfield (1891-1976)

• Neurosurgeon
• During surgery: Electrically stimulate brain 
record behavioral responses
– Specific movements or sensations
– Past experience, memories
– Regional resposes: Genralized or individual
• Brain region ↔ Specific behavior (?)
• Brain region ↔ General-purpose processor (?)
• Sex differences (?)
 Definitions
• histology: The study of tissue structure.
• gross neuroanatomy: Anatomical features of the
nervous system that are apparent to the naked
eye.
• neurophysiology: The study of the life processes
of neurons.
• chemical neuroanatomy: The distribution of key
chemicals, such as transmitters and enzymes,
within the structure of the nervous system.
• neuropharmacology: Also called
psychopharmacology. The study of the effects of
drugs on the nervous system and behavior.
The nervous system
is composed of cells

• Neurons = Nerve cells

• Circuits
• Input  integration & analysis  output
(Communication)
• Nervous system contacts every organ and muscle
• 30000 Genes
• 100-150 billion neurons in the brain
• Apprx 1015 connections
 The neuron doctrine
defines neurons and their connections

• Late 19th century: Microscope

• Special stains (make transparent cells
visible
– Brains contain large number of neurons
– Varied in size and shape
• Interconnections (?)
 Neuron doctrine
• Camillo Golgi (1843-1926)
– Neurons are continuous and form networks through
which information flow
• Santiago Ramon y Cajal (1852 – 1934)
– Neurons come close to each other, but are not
continous
– There is a gap between neurons
Neuron doctrine:
1) separate neurons
2) Information transmitted across gaps
• Sir Charles Sherrington (1857-1957)
– Named gaps as synapses
 Definitions
• neuron or nerve cell: The basic unit of the
nervous system, each composed of a cell body,
receptive extension(s) (dendrites), and a
transmitting extension (axon).
• neuron doctrine: The hypothesis that the brain
is composed of separate cells that are distinct
structurally, metabolically, and functionally.
• synapse: A cellular location at which information
is transmitted from one neuron to another.
• glial cells: Also called glia or neuroglia.
Nonneural brain cells that provide structural,
nutritional, and other types of support to the
brain.
19th century drawing of neurons by Cajal
19th century drawing of neurons by Cajal
 Structural divisions of the
neuron
1. Input zone: Dendrites (dendron=
tree)receive information
2. Integration zone: Cell body (soma)
receives input from many synaptic
contacts. Inputs are combined and
transformed
3. Conduction zone: Axon transmits
cell’s electrical impulses away from
the cell body
4. Output zone: Axon terminals
(synaptic boutons) communicate
cell’s activity to other cells.
Synaptic connections between neurons

Arrows represent direction of information flow

Internal structures
 Definitions
• mitochondrion: A cellular organelle that
provides metabolic energy for the cell's
processes.
• cell nucleus: The spherical central
structure of a cell that contains the
chromosomes.
• ribosomes: Structures in the cell body
where genetic information is translated
(proteins are produced).
 Definitions
• dendrite: One of the extensions of the cell body that are the receptive
surfaces of the neuron.
• input zone: The part of a neuron that receives information, from other
neurons or from specialized sensory structures. Usually corresponds to
the cell's dendrites.
• cell body or soma: The region of a neuron that is defined by the
presence of the cell nucleus.
• integration zone: The part of the neuron that initiates nerve activity if the
sum of all inhibitory and excitatory postsynaptic potentials exceeds a
threshold value. Usually corresponds to the neuron's axon hillock.
• axon: A single extension from the nerve cell that carries nerve impulses
from the cell body to other neurons.
• conduction zone: The part of the neuron over which the nerve's
electrical signal may be actively propagated. Usually corresponds to the
cell's axon.
• axon terminal: The end of an axon or axon collateral, which forms a
synapse on a neuron or other target.
• output zone: The part of a neuron, usually corresponding to the axon
terminals, at which the cell's electrical activity is conveyed to another cell.
 Sizes of some neural structures and the units of
measure and magnification used in studying them
Varitey in the form of nerve cells
 Neurons can be classified by
shape, size, or function
• Multipolar: Many dendrites, single axon
(most comon)
• Bipolar: Single dendrite at one end, single
axon at the other (sensory systems)
• Monopolar: Single extension that
branches  one end is the receptive pole,
the other is the output zone (afferent
neurons: from body into spinal cord )
Classification of neurons into three principal types
 Definitions
• multipolar neuron: A nerve cell that has many
dendrites and a single axon.
• bipolar neuron: A nerve cell that has a single
dendrite at one end and a single axon at the
other end.
• monopolar neuron: A nerve cell with a single
branch that leaves the cell body and then
extends in two directions: one end is the
receptive pole, the other end the output zone.
 Classifying nerve cells by size

• Vertebrate nerve cells vary in size:

10 -100 µm
• Larger neurons have more complex inputs
and uotputs and cover greater distances
• Large sized neurons convey information
more rapidly than smaller neurons (i.e. 60
m/sc vs 0.5 m/sec)
 Classifying nerve cells by function

• Motoneurons: from brain or spinal cord to

body and organs (efferent)
• Sensory neurons: from the body (carry
environmental information/stimuli) tot he
brain
• Interneurons: vast majority; connect
nerve cells  receive and send
information to other neurons
 Definitions
• motoneuron: Also called motor neuron. A nerve
cell in the spinal cord that transmits motor
messages from the spinal cord to muscles.
• sensory neuron: A neuron that is directly
affected by changes in the environment, such as
light, odor, or touch.
• interneuron: A neuron that is neither a sensory
neuron nor a motoneuron; it receives input from
and sends output to other neurons.
 Glial cells
• Glia = glue
• Originally believed to hold cells together
• Functions:
– Support
– Can communicate with each other and with
neurons
– Provide neurons with raw materials and
chemicals  alter neuronal structure and
activity
 Types of glial cells
• Astrocyte (astron = star):
– endfeet on blood vesels  control local blood flow
together with neurons
– Generate own electrical impulses and receive
synapses from neurons
– Communicate among themselves and with nearby
neurons
• Microglia
– Small and active
– Remove debris from njured cells
• Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells
 Structure and location of astrocytes
whose processes suround nerons of the CNS
 Representative glial cells
b) Oligodendrocytes: myelin wrapping on axons
a) Protoplasmic astrocyte

c) Unmyelinated axons,
embedded in glial cells
d) Processes from astrocytes
surround and insulate
synapses, modify activity
 Definitions
• astrocyte: A star-shaped glial cell with numerous
processes (extensions) that run in all directions.
• microglial cells: Also called microglia. Extremely small
glial cells that remove cellular debris from injured or dead
cells.
• myelin: The fatty insulation around an axon, formed by
accessory cells, that improves the speed of conduction
of nerve impulses.
• myelination: The process of myelin formation.
• node of Ranvier: A gap between successive segments
of the myelin sheath where the axon membrane is
exposed.
• multiple sclerosis: Literally “many scars”; a disorder
characterized by widespread degeneration of myelin.
 Some glial cells wrap around axons,
forming myelin sheaths
• Glia wrap the axon and form a myelin sheath (insulator)
 myelination
• Gaps between myelinated segments: nodes of Ranvier
– Ranvier nodes increase speed of conduction
– Demyelinating diseases cause serious problems
• Myelin sheath is formed by
– Oligodendrocytes in the brain and spinal cord
– Schwann cells in the periphery
• Myelination continues after birth in humans (in some
regions up to 10-15 years, possibly thoughout life)
• Unmyelinated axons are also embedded in glial cells
• Many tumors of the nervous system are from glia
• Glia swell after injury  edema
An oligodendrocyte surrounding axons in the CNS
Formation of myelin during development
 Definitions
• oligodendrocyte: A type of glial cell that
is commonly associated with nerve cell
bodies.
• Schwann cell: The accessory cell that
forms myelin in the peripheral nervous
system.
• edema: The swelling of tissue, especially
in the brain, in response to injury.
The neuronal cell body and dendrites
receive information across synapses
• Denrites branch
(arborization) and receive
input from thousands of
synapses
• Surfaces of dendrites are
covered with synapses
• Information is transmitted
from presynaptic neuron to
postsynaptic neuron
• A synapse has three
components:
– Presynaptic membrane
– Postsynaptic membrane
– Synaptic cleft (20-40 nm)
 Definitions
• arborization: The elaborate branching of the dendrites
of some neurons.
• presynaptic: Referring to the region of the synapse that
releases neurotransmitter.
• postsynaptic: Referring to the region of a synapse that
receives and responds to neurotransmitter.
• presynaptic membrane: The specialized membrane of
the axon terminal of the neuron that transmits
information by releasing neurotransmitter.
• postsynaptic membrane: The specialized membrane
on the surface of the cell that receives information from a
presynaptic neuron.
• synaptic cleft: The space between the presynaptic and
postsynaptic elements.
Synapses
 Definitions
• synaptic vesicle: A small, spherical structure that
contains molecules of synaptic transmitter.
• neurotransmitter: Also called synaptic transmitter,
chemical transmitter, or simply transmitter. The chemical
released from the presynaptic axon terminal, that serves
as the basis of communication between neurons.
• receptor: Also called receptor molecule. A protein that
captures and reacts to molecules of a transmitter or
hormone.
• dendritic spine: An outgrowth along the dendrite of a
neuron.
• neural plasticity: Also called neuroplasticity. The ability
of the nervous system to change in response to
experience or the environment.
 The axon is a specialized output zone
• Axon hillock is the integrating zone and gives
rise to electric impulses that carry the message
• Neurons have one axon (few exceptions)
– Axon has branches  axon collaterals
– One axon can innervate many cells
• Cell body makes proteins, guided by DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid)
– Proteins are carried to axon terminal by axonal
transport and recycled materials are returned to the
cell body
– Axonal transport can be slow (> 8 mm/day) or fast
(200-400 mm/day)
 Definitions
• axon hillock: A cone-shaped area from
which the axon originates out of the cell
body.
• axon collateral: A branch of an axon from
a single neuron.
• innervate: To provide neural input.
• axonal transport: The transportation of
materials from the neuron cell body to
distant regions in the dendrites and axons,
and from the axon terminals back to the
cell body.
 Neuroanatomical Methods
provide ways to understand the brain
The nervous system consits of
central and peripheral divisions
 The peripheral nervous system

• Consists of nerves (axons) that extend

throughout the body
• Transmit information from the CNS to the body
(motor) or from the sensory systems to the CNS
(sensory)
• Components:
– Cranial nerves: Directly connected to the brain
– Spinal nerves: Connected to the spinal cord
– Autonomic nervous system: Controls viscera (internal
organs)
 Definitions
• peripheral nervous system: The portion of the nervous
system that includes all the nerves and neurons outside
the brain and spinal cord.
• central nervous system (CNS) : The portion of the
nervous system that includes the brain and the spinal
cord.
• nerve: A collection of axons bundled together outside
the central nervous system.
• cranial nerve: A nerve that is connected directly to the
brain.
• spinal nerve: Also called somatic nerve. A nerve that
emerges from the spinal cord.
• autonomic nervous system: The part of the peripheral
nervous system that supplies neural connections to
glands and to smooth muscles of internal organs.
 Cranial nerves
• 12 pairs
• Motor and sensory systems of the head
• Pass through small openings in the skull
• Sensory:
– I. Olfactory
– II. Optic
– VIII. Vestibulocochlear
• Motor:
– III. Oculomotor
– IV. Trochlear
– VI. Abducens
– XI. Spinal accessory
– XII. Hypoglossal
• Sensory + Motor
– V. Trigeminal
– VII. Facial
– IX. Glossopharyngeal
– X. Vagus
 Spinal Nerves
• 31 pairs (somatic nerves)
• Join the spinal cord at regularly spaced intervals
through openings in the backbone
• Each spinal nerve has two branches (roots)
which are functionally different
– Dorsal (back) root: sensory
– Ventral (front) root: motor
• The names of the spinal nerve is the same as
the spinal cord segment
– 8 cervical (neck): C1-8
– 12 thoracic (trunk): T1-12
– 5 lumbar (lower back): L1-5
– 5 sacral (pelvic): S1-5
– 1 coccygeal (bottom)
 Definitions
• dorsal root: The branch of a spinal nerve, entering the dorsal horn
of the spinal cord, that carries sensory information from the
peripheral nervous system to the spinal cord.
• ventral root: The branch of a spinal nerve, arising from the ventral
horn of the spinal cord, that carries motor messages from the spinal
cord to the peripheral nervous system.
• cervical: Referring to the topmost 8 segments of the spinal cord, in
the neck region.
• thoracic: Referring to the 12 spinal segments below the cervical
(neck) portion of the spinal cord, corresponding to the chest.
• lumbar: Referring to the 5 spinal segments that make up the upper
part of the lower back.
• sacral: Referring to the 5 spinal segments that make up the lower
part of the lower back.
• coccygeal: Referring to the lowest spinal vertebra (also known as
the tailbone).
 Autonomic nervous system
• Autonomic (independent) ganglia are outside the CNS
and are controlled by the CNS (both in the central and in
the peripheral nervous systems)
• Functions are not “conscious” and under voluntary
control
• Autonomic neurons in the brain and spinal cord send
axons to innervate the ganglia (preganglionic) and
ganglionic neurons innervate the body (postganglionic)
• The autonomic nervous system has 3 major
components:
– Sympathetic (preganglionic cells in the T and L spinal cord,
axons innervate ganglia in the sympathetic chain, axons of
postganglionic cells innervate smooth muscles)  prepares the
body for action
– Parasympathetic (preganglionic cells in the C and S spinal
cord, axons innervate ganglia, near the organ, post ganglionic
axons innervate the organ  prepares the body for rest
– Enteric nervous system: A local network within the walls of the
digestive organs (innervated by symp. and parasymp NS)
 Definitions
• autonomic ganglia: Collections of nerve cell bodies, belonging to
the autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system, that are
found in various locations and innervate the major organs.
• preganglionic: “Before the ganglion.” Referring to neurons in the
autonomic nervous system that run from the central nervous system
to the autonomic ganglia.
• postganglionic: “After the ganglion.” Referring to neurons in the
autonomic nervous system that run from the autonomic ganglia to
various targets in the body.
• sympathetic nervous system: One of two systems that compose
the autonomic nervous system. Arises from the thoracic and lumbar
spinal cord.
• sympathetic chain: A chain of ganglia that runs along each side of
the spinal column; part of the sympathetic nervous system.
• parasympathetic nervous system: One of two systems that
compose the autonomic nervous system. Arises from both the
cranial nerves and the sacral spinal cord.
• enteric nervous system: An extensive meshlike system of neurons
that governs the functioning of the gut.
 The Central Nervous System (CNS)

• Brain
• Spinal cord
– Funnels information from the body to the brain
and from the brain to the body
– Processes local information and controls
reflexes
 Brain features (naked eye)
• 1400 g (~ 2% of body weight)
• Cerebral hemispheres
– Frontal lobe
– Parietal lobe
– Temporal lobe
– Occipital lobe
• Boundaries between lobes
– Sylvian fissur (Temporal L)
– Central sulcus (Frontal-Parietal L)
• Cortex (cortex = bark of a tree): outermost layers
– Seat of complex cognition
– “Higher” functions (speech, memory, visual processing)
– Postcentral gyrus (sense of touch)
– Precentral gyrus (motor control)
• Corpus callosum: C-shaped bundle of axons-
communication between hemispheres
 Definitions
• cerebral hemispheres: The right and left halves
of the forebrain.
• gyrus: A ridged or raised portion of a convoluted
brain surface.
• sulcus: A furrow of a convoluted brain surface.
• gray matter: Areas of the brain that are
dominated by cell bodies and are devoid of
myelin.
• neural tube: An embryonic structure with
subdivisions that correspond to the future
forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
 Definitions
• forebrain: Also called prosencephalon. The frontal division of the neural
tube, containing the cerebral hemispheres, the thalamus, and the
hypothalamus.
• midbrain: Also called mesencephalon. The middle division of the brain.
• hindbrain: Also called rhombencephalon. The rear division of the brain,
which, in the mature vertebrate, contains the cerebellum, pons, and
medulla.
• telencephalon: The frontal subdivision of the forebrain that includes the
cerebral hemispheres when fully developed.
• diencephalon: The posterior part of the forebrain, including the thalamus
and hypothalamus.
• metencephalon: A subdivision of the hindbrain that includes the
cerebellum and the pons.
• cerebellum: A structure located at the back of the brain, dorsal to the
pons, that is involved in the central regulation of movement.
• pons: A portion of the metencephalon.
• myelencephalon or medulla: The caudal part of the hindbrain.
• brainstem: The region of the brain that consists of the midbrain, the
pons, and the medulla.
 The brain is described by both
structure and function
• Single structures along the midline
– Corpus callosum
– Pineal gland
– Pituitary gland
• Most structures are found in both right and left
sides
• Brain controls the opposite (contralateral) side of
the body (few exceptions): Right side of the
brain controls and receives information from the
left side of the body
• Two hemispheres interact
 Within the cerebral hemispheres are the
basal ganglia and the limbic system
• Basal ganglia: Motor control
– Caudate
– Putamen
– Globus pallidus
– Substantia nigra
• Limbic system: Emotion and learning
– Amygdala (almond): emotional regulation, odor
perception
– Hippocampus (sea horse) and fornix: Learning
– Cingulate gyrus: diverse functions, including direction
of attention
– Olfactory bulb: smell
– Hypothalamus and the mammillary bodies
 Definitions
• nucleus: Here, an anatomical collection of neurons
within the central nervous system (e.g., the caudate
nucleus).
• tract: A bundle of axons found within the central nervous
system.
• basal ganglia: A group of forebrain nuclei (caudate
nucleus, globus pallidus, and putamen) found deep
within the cerebral hemispheres.
• caudate nucleus: One of the basal ganglia; it has a long
extension or tail.
• putamen: One of the basal ganglia.
• globus pallidus: One of the basal ganglia.
• substantia nigra: A brainstem structure in humans that
is related to the basal ganglia and named for its dark
pigmentation.
 Definitions
• limbic system: A loosely defined, widespread group of
brain nuclei that innervate each other to form a network.
• amygdala: A group of nuclei in the medial anterior part
of the temporal lobe.
• hippocampus: A medial temporal lobe structure that is
thought to be important for learning and memory.
• fornix: A fiber tract that extends from the hippocampus
to the mammillary body.
• cingulate gyrus: A cortical portion of the limbic system,
found in the frontal and parietal midline.
• olfactory bulb: An anterior basal structure that receives
olfactory (smell) inputs from the nasal cavities.
 Diencephalon
• Thalamus:
– Almost all sensory information is directed to the cortex
through the thalamus
– The cortex innervates the thalamus to control sensory
input
• Hypothalamus:
– Many nuclei with distinct vital functions.
– Implicated in hunger, thirst, temperature regulation,
reproductive behaviors and more.
– Controls the pituitary  hormone secretion
 Midbrain:
Sensory and motor systems
• Tectum
– Superior colliculi: Processes visual information
– Inferior colliculi: Processes information about sound
• Substantia nigra (part of limbic system):
Release dopamine to the caudate (loss 
Parknson’s disease)
• Red nucleus: Communicates with motor
neurons int he spinal cord
• Nuclei of cranial nerves
• Reticular formation: (reticulum = network):
Sleep, arousal, temperature regulation, motor
control
 Definitions
• mammillary body: One of a pair of nuclei at the base of the
brain.
• thalamus: The brain regions that surround the third ventricle.
• hypothalamus: Part of the diencephalon, lying ventral to the
thalamus.
• superior colliculi: Paired structures on the dorsal surface of the
midbrain, rostral to the inferior colliculi, that receive visual
information.
• inferior colliculi: Paired structures on the dorsal surface of the
midbrain, caudal to the superior colliculi, that receive auditory
information.
• tectum: The dorsal portion of the midbrain, including the inferior
and superior colliculi.
• red nucleus: A brainstem structure related to motor control.
• reticular formation: An extensive region of the brainstem
(extending from the medulla through the thalamus) that is
involved in arousal.
 Cerebellum-attached to Pons
• 3 layers
– Purkinje cells
– Granule cell layer: Below Purkinje cells; axons rise to
the surface of the cerebellum to form parallel fibers
– Molecular layer (axons of the granule cells)
• Functions:
– Motor coordination and control
– Integration of some sensory and motor functions
– Some aspects of cognition, including learning
• Pons: Below cerebellum, part of the brainstem
– Motor control and sensory nuclei
– Information from the ear  vestibulocochlear (VIII)
nerve
 Definitions
• Purkinje cell: A type of large nerve cell in
the cerebellar cortex.
• granule cell: A type of small nerve cell.
• parallel fiber: One of the axons of the
granule cells that form the outermost layer
of the cerebellar cortex.
 Medulla
• Most caudal portion of the brainstem 
transition from brainstem to the spinal cord
• Nuclei of cranial nerves
– XI (Spinal accessory  neck muscles)
– XII (Hypoglossal tongue muscles)
• Reticular formation
• Nuclei that regulate breathing and heart
rate  vital!
 Cerebral cortex performs complex
cognitive processing
• If unfolded: 2000 cm2
• 6 layers  isocortex (cortex, neocortex)
– Some telencephalic structures are made up of
allocortex (3 layers, or unlayered) (previously
archi- or paleo-cortex
• Cells:
– Pyramidal (layer III or V)
• Cortical columns: vertically organised to
process information
 Layers of the
cerebral cortex
 Definitions
• isocortex (or cortex): Cerebral cortex that is made up
of six distinct layers. (Formerly referred to as neocortex.)
• allocortex: Brain tissue with three layers or unlayered
organization.
• pyramidal cell: A type of large nerve cell that has a
roughly pyramid-shaped cell body; found in the cerebral
cortex.
• apical dendrite: The dendrite that extends from a
pyramidal cell to the outermost surface of the cortex.
• basal dendrite: One of several dendrites on a pyramidal
cell that extend horizontally from the cell body.
• cortical column: One of the vertical columns that
constitute the basic organization of the isocortex.