CHAPTER FIVE

THE CLIMATE OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

 Ethiopia is characterized by a wide variety of
altitudinal ranges and diverse climatic
conditions.
 Ethiopia is subjected to large temporal and spatial
variations in elements of weather and climate- due
to closeness to the equator & Indian Ocean.
 The climate of Ethiopia is controlled by:
 The seasonal migration of the inter tropical
convergence zone (ITCZ) and associated
atmospheric circulations &
 By the complex topography of the country.
• The Intertropical Convergence Zone, or ITCZ, is the
region that circles the Earth, near the equator, where
the trade winds of the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres come together. The intense sun and
warm water of the equator heats the air in the ITCZ,
raising its humidity and making it buoyant.
The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone, or ITCZ, is a
belt of low pressure which circles the Earth
generally near the equator where the trade winds
of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres come
together
 Weather
 Is the instantaneous or current state of the atmosphere
composing: temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity,
wind speed and direction, cloudiness and precipitation.
 This information about air condition relates to weather.
 Weather parameters are measured using various instruments.
 The weather that impacts the surface of the earth and those
that live on the surface takes place in the troposphere.
 All weather conditions may be traced to the effect of the Sun
on the Earth.
 Most changes in weather involve large scale horizontal
motion of air which is called wind.
 Weather is expressed by a combination of several elements.
 Climate
 Climate information gives us long-term data about the
average weather conditions of a place or a region over a
long period of time; such a period is typically as long as 30
years or more.
 It refers the state of the atmosphere over long time periods,
decades and more.
 It is the composite of daily weather conditions recorded for
long periods of time.
 Climate also takes into account the extremes or variations
that may occur beyond the average conditions.
 The climate of a region is ultimately determined by the radiation, its
distribution and temporal fluctuations. The long-term state of the
atmosphere is a function of a variety of interacting elements.
 Elements of weather and climate
 Both weather and climate are composed of the following
elements.
Precipitation
Temperature
Humidity
Air pressure
Wind
Sunshine, etc.
 The distribution of these elements over the surface of the earth
is uneven in terms of magnitude and time.
 For example, Ethiopia and the Horn as a whole experience
different temperatures on the same day or within a month. This
spatial and temporal distribution of climatic elements is
 5.2.1. Controls of Weather and Climate
 The climate of any particular location on earth is determined by a
combination of many interacting factors. These include latitude,
elevation, nearby water, ocean currents, topography, vegetation, and
prevailing winds. Moreover, the global climate system and any
changes that occur within it also influence local climate.
 The following factors influence the control of the spatial and
temporal distribution of the climatic elements in Ethiopia and the
Horn:
Latitude
Altitude
Revolution of the earth and the inclination of the earth’s axis
Distance from the sea
Mountain barriers
Weather systems
Cloud cover
Latitude is a measurement on a globe or map of location
north or south of the Equato
Latitude is the distance of a location from the equator. The
sun shines directly on equator for more hours during the
year than anywhere else.
 As you move further away from the equator towards the
poles, less solar insolation is received during the year and
the temperature become colder.
 Ethiopia's latitudinal location has bearings on its
temperature.
Latitudinal location of Ethiopia and the Horn resulted in:
 High average temperatures,
 High daily and small annual ranges of temperature,
 No significant variation in length of day and night between
summer and winter. Longitude is a measurement of location east
Revolution of the Earth and Inclination of the Earth’s
Axis
 The axis of the earth inclines 23½o to the normal of
the elliptic.
 As the earth revolves around the sun, this
inclination produces a change in the direction of
the sun’s rays, thereby affecting the length of time
that the sun shines on the earth every other day.
 Changes in the length of the day and in the
directness of the sun’s rays cause seasons.
 These different seasons result in the temporal
variation of temperature in a year in Ethiopia and
in the Horn as a whole.
• What does the revolution of the Earth and
the tilting of its axis cause?
• Earth's tilted axis causes the seasons.
Throughout the year, different parts of Earth
receive the Sun's most direct rays. So, when
the North Pole tilts toward the Sun, it's
summer in the Northern Hemisphere. And
when the South Pole tilts toward the Sun, it's
winter in the Northern Hemisphere.
 Equinox
An equinox is the instant of time when the sun strikes the plane of the Earth's
equator. During this passage the length of day and night are equal.
 Equinox appears twice a year.

The Vernal (spring) equinox: is the day when the point of verticality of sun's
rays crosses the equator northwards.
 This equinox experiences in Northern Hemisphere when the sun is exactly above the
equator.
 During this period, the length of day and night are equal.
 Vernal (spring) equinox marks the beginning of spring season.
 March 21st marks the offset of the vernal equinox.

The Autumn equinox: appears to happen when the sun crosses equator giving
approximately equal length between day and night.
 It appears to happen when the visible sun moves south across the celestial equator on 23 rd
of September.
 It marks the beginning of Autumn season.
 Solstice
Solstice is an event when the overhead sun appears to cross northern or
southern points relative to the celestial equator resulting in unequal
length of days and nights in the hemispheres.
 Both hemispheres during this event has either the most or least sunlight
of the year.
The summer Solstice: on June 21st, the northern hemisphere has
maximum tilt towards the sun experiencing longest daylight of the year.
 It is the astronomical first day of summer in the Northern Hemisphere.
 The sun is at its highest position in the noonday sky, directly above 23 ½ in
the Tropic of Cancer.
The winter solstice: 22nd of December is the day when the maximum
southward inclination is attained in the Southern Hemisphere.
 In this event the sun travels shortest length causing longest night and shortest
daylight.
 In the Northern Hemisphere, it occurs when the sun is directly over the
Tropic of Capricorn, which is located at 23 ½ ° south of the equator.
 c. Altitude

 Altitude is height above mean sea level.

 This altitudinal variation plays a significant role in
temperature variation from place to place.
 Different places that exist on the same plane or angle of the
rays of the sun might be expected to experience equal
temperatures. However, due to the impact of altitude, they
do not.
 For example, three Ethiopian cities, Bako, Addis Ababa,
and Awash all lie on the 9oN latitude, and therefore they
might be expected to receive equal magnitudes of direct
rays from the sun and therefore equal temperatures.
 However, their altitudes vary, and therefore their
 Distance from water bodies
 Water bodies and landmasses have different levels
of heat absorption.
 Land masses absorb and release heat energy more
quickly than water bodies do.
 Distance from the sea affects the Horn’s climate
only in coastal areas that are adjacent to the Red
Sea and the northwestern Indian Ocean.
 In all other areas, the role of distance from the sea
in climate control is insignificant.
 Mountain Barriers

 Mountain barriers can affect climate in that they exert

influence on the spatial distribution of rainfall.

 Places located on the leeward side of mountains (also

called rain shadow) receive little rain.

 This effect occurs in the northwestern and

northeastern lowlands of Ethiopia and the Horn.

• Mountains can have a significant effect on rainfall. When air
reaches the mountains, it is forced to rise over this barrier.
As the air moves up the windward side of a mountain, it
cools, and the volume decreases. As a result, humidity
increases and orographic clouds and precipitation can
develop
 Weather Systems
 Weather systems are actually the effects of spatial variation of the
overhead sun, which in turn results in the variation of temperature,
pressure and rainfall.
 In the Horn of Africa, the apparent shift of the overhead sun between
the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn contributes to the
prevalence of different wind systems in different seasons.
 The major weather systems that impact over Ethiopia and the Horn
are:
 The Northeast Trade winds (prevalent in December, January and February)
 The Equatorial Westerlies (prevalent in June, July and August)
 The Equatorial easterlies (prevalent in September and October, March and
April).
 It is because of these weather systems that the rainfall period varies in
Ethiopia and the Horn.
• Weather systems are simply the movement of warm
and cold air across the globe. These movements are
known as low-pressure systems and high-pressure
systems. ... High-pressure systems keep moisture
from rising into the atmosphere and forming clouds.
• High-pressure systems are characterized by sinking
air, clear skies, and dry weather. Low-pressure
systems, on the other hand, are characterized by
rising air, cloudy skies, and often bring precipitation.
5.3. Spatiotemporal Patterns and Distribution of
Temperature and Rainfall in Ethiopia

5.3.1. Spatiotemporal Distribution of Temperature

 The two factors that most affect the spatial

variation of temperature in Ethiopia are:

 Cloud cover and

 Altitude
 Cloud Cover

 Cloud cover is the covering of parts of the earth by

clouds.
 The cover acts as temperature insulation for the
earth, for both day and night hours.
 By day, it can prevent the full force of sun’s rays
from heating the earth.
 By night, it can prevent the heat absorbed by the
earth from escaping into the atmosphere.
 Therefore, the presence or absence of cloud cover
produces spatial temperature variations in Ethiopia
and elsewhere in the Horn.
 Altitude

 Because altitude has such a large effect on

temperature, it is a major determining factor of

Ethiopia’s agro-climatic zones.

These zones have traditionally been defined in

terms of temperature.
 Wurch-Zone Areas-Cool:

 The Wurch-zone areas have the highest altitudes and

lowest temperatures.
 Frequently they have temperatures of less than 10C0.
 These areas exist only in the very high mountains of
South Gondar, Wollo, Shoa, Arsi and Bale.
 Example:
Mt. Ras Dashen in Semine Gondar

Mt. Guna in South Gondar

Mt. Megezez in North Shoa

Mt. Batu in Bale, etc.

Ethiopia’s Agro-Climatic Zones
 Dega-Zone Areas-Cool Temperate

 The Dega-zone areas are highland areas with lower altitudes and higher
temperatures than Wurch-zone areas.
 Historically, Dega-zone areas were the home of concentrated human settlement.
They were chosen because of the features below:
 i Secure location (from which people could defend themselves from threats)
 ii Reliable rainfall
 iii Absence of diseases such as malaria, etc.

 Due to this high concentration of human population, the Dega zone has been
intensively cultivated and has a high rate of soil erosion, overgrazing and
deforestation.
 Some of the humid areas of this zone support two growing periods per year under
rain-fed agriculture. Example:
 Dinsho in Bale
 Chillallo in Arsi
 Hulla in Sidama
 Woina-Dega-Zone Areas- Temperate

 The Woina-Dega-zone areas contain most of

Ethiopia’s agricultural land. They are the country’s
main areas producing:
 Surplus grain
 Inset and its derivatives

 In the Woina-Dega zone, as in the Dega zone, there

can be two growing seasons when rainfall
Qolla Zone-Warm Temprate and Bereha-Zone Areas-
Hot
 The Qolla and Bereha agro - climatic zones are
largely confined to lowland areas with altitudes of
1500 meters and below.
 They are sparsely populated and their populations
are primarily engaged in pastoralist activities. They
occupy:
 The peripheral areas of Ethiopia and Eritrea
 Most of Somalia
 Djibouti
5.3.2. Spatiotemporal Distribution of Rainfall
 Rainfall in Ethiopia is the result is influenced by
the position of Inter tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ).
 The convergence of Northeast Trade winds and the
Equatorial Westerlies forms the ITCZ, which is a
low-pressure zone.
 The inter-annual oscillation of the surface position
of the ITCZ causes a variation in the Wind flow
patterns over Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Following the position of the overhead sun, the
ITCZ shifts north and south of the equator.
 Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
 It is a low pressure zone formed by the convergence of Northeast
Trade winds and the Equatorial Westerlies.
 It shifts north and south of the equator following the position of the
overhead sun.
 In July, its position is at the Tropic of Cancer. During this time,
Ethiopia and the Horn come under the influence of the Equatorial
Westerlies and Easterlies.
 These winds bring moisture to the highlands but decrease their
magnitude and length of rainy periods northwards.
 In January, its position shifts to the Tropic of Capricorn leaving the
region for the prevalence of the Northeast Trade winds that are non-
moistrue-laden.
 During this time only the Eritrean coastal lands and the Afar region
receive rain. In most of Ethiopia, western Eretria and Somalia, it
becomes dry season.
 Con…

 In March and September, the position of the ITCZ

is around the equator.

 Hence, the Equatorial Easterlies provide rain to the

highlands of Somalia, and to the Central and

Southeastern lowlands and highlands of Ethiopia.

 Ethiopia’s rainfall is characterized by seasonal variation.
There are two main rainy seasons: “Kiremt (summer) and
Belg (spring)”.
 These two rainy seasons contribute more than 90% of the
country’s rain supply.
 There are two other rainy seasons – the autumn rains,
called the Metsew, and the winter rains. Compared to the
two main seasons, the duration, volume, and aerial
coverage of Metsew rains are less.
 The winter rainy season is insignificant for the highlands.
It supplies rain only to the Afar lowlands, the Red Sea
coastal areas and the eastern escarpment of the Eritrean
 Rainfall Regions in Ethiopia and the
Horn
 Based on rainfall distribution, both in space and
time, five types of rainfall regions can be identified
in Ethiopia and the Horn. These are:
 year-round rainfall region (wet in most months)
 summer rainfall region
 autumn-and-spring rainfall region
 winter rainfall region
 merged spring, summer, and autumn rainfall region
 Year-Round Rainfall Region

In Ethiopia, the area of year-round rainfall:

includes the southwestern plateau comprising the
highlands of:
 Wellega, Keffa, Illubabor and Gamo Goffa.
This region can be represented by the following
stations:
 Gore, Mizan, Metu, Bonga, Gambella, etc.
The region has more rainy days than any other part
of the country.
The average rainfall varies from 1400 mm to 2200
mm.
 Summer Rainfall Region

 The summer rainfall region is the largest in the

country.
 This region consists of the Northwest Highlands
and Western Lowlands, and can be represented by
the following stations.
 Debremarkos, Fitche, Gondar, Bahrdar, etc.

 Its moisture-bearing winds are the Equatorial

 Autumn-and-Spring Rainfall Region

 The autumn-and-spring rainfall region covers the

southeastern highlands and associated lowlands up
to the Somalia coasts. They can be represented by the
following stations:
 Gode, Moyalle, Jigjiga, Yabello, Baydhabo.
 The region’s moisture-bearing winds are the Equatorial
Easterlies.
 They pick up moisture from the Indian Ocean, and they
blow over the autumn and spring rainfall region when
the North easterlies and Equatorial Westerlies are weak.
 The region’s average rainfall varies from less than 500
to 1000 mm.
 Winter Rainfall Region

 The winter rainfall region consists of the eastern

escarpment of the western highlands, the middle
Rift Valley section, the Afar subdivision and Eritrea.
 The winter rainfall region can be represented by the
following stations.
 Mitswa, Assaita and Djibouti.
 The region’s moisture-bearing winds are, for the most
part, the North Easterlies.
 The air mass is continental (dry) and has only a short
sea trajectory (that is the Red Sea).
 The region’s total annual moisture is very low and of
short duration.
Merged Spring, Summer and Autumn Rainfall Region

 The merged spring, summer and autumn rainfall

region is the smallest in the country. It consists
mainly of the western foothills of the Southeastern
Highlands. The region’s total annual rainfall varies
from 1500 mm to 1000 mm.
 It covers a corridor that stretches from the Sidama
Highlands to the Hararge Plateau.
 The merged spring, summer, and autumn rainfall
region is represented by the letter C stations-
Assaita, Awash, etc.
A-Summer Rainfall Region
B-Year round Rainfall region
C-Merged Spring, Summer
& Autumn Rainfall region
D-Winter Rainfall Region
E-Autumn & Spring Rainfall
Region
 5.5. Climate Change/Global Warming: Causes,
Consequences and Response Mechanisms

 It refers to any change in climate over time, due to

either natural variability or human activities.

5.5.1. Current Trends of Climate in Ethiopia
 Ethiopian climate experiences extremes such as
drought, flood etc.
 Ethiopia ranked 5th out of 184 countries in terms of
its risk of drought.
 12 extreme drought events were recorded between
1900 and 2010,seven of the drought events occurred
since 1980.
 The majority of these resulted in famines. The severe
drought of 2015-2016 was exacerbated by the
strongest El Nino that caused successive harvest
failures and widespread livestock deaths in some
 Trends in Temperature Variability
 Ethiopia has experienced climatic changes.
 Mean annual temperature has shown 0.2°C to 0.28°C rise
per decade over the last 40-50 years.
 A rise in average temperature of about 1.3°C has been
observed between 1960 and 2006.
 The rise has spatial and temporal variation.
 Higher rise in temperature was noted in drier areas in
northeast and southeast part of the country. Notably the
variability is higher in July-September.
 The number of “hot days” and “hot nights” has also shown
increment.
 Consequently, the country's minimum temperature has
 Trends in Rainfall Variability
 Rainfall variability is increasing (and predictability is decreasing) in many parts of
the country.

 In some regions, total average rainfall is showing decline.

 For instance, parts of southern, south-western and south-eastern regions receiving

Spring and Summer rainfall have shown decline by 15-20% between 1975 and 2010.

 Changes in temperature and rainfall increase the frequency and severity of extreme
events.

 Major floods have been a common occurrence, leading to loss of life and property
in numerous parts of the country.

 Warming has exacerbated droughts, and desertification in the lowlands of the

country is expanding.
 5.5.2. Causes of Climate Change
 The causes of climate change are generally
categorized as anthropogenic/manmade and
natural causes.
A. Natural Causes
 Climate change has many natural causes, such as:
 Variations in the energy budget;

 The position of earth relative to sun;

 The position of continents relative to the equator; and
even whether the continents are together or apart.
 Con…
Earth orbital changes:
 The earth is tilted at an angle of 23.5° to the perpendicular plane of its orbital
path.
 Changes in the tilt of the earth can lead to small but climatically important
changes in the strength of the seasons.
 More tilt means warmer summers and colder winters.
Energy Budget:
 Although the Sun's energy output appears constant, small changes over an
extended period of time can lead to climate changes.
 Since the Sun was born, 4.5 billion years ago, the star has been very gradually
increasing its amount of radiation so that it is now 20% to 30% more intense
than it was once.
Volcanic eruptions:
 Volcanic eruption releases large volumes of sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide,
water vapor, dust, and ash into the atmosphere.
 The release of large volume of gases and ash can increase planetary reflectivity
 B. Anthropogenic Causes
 The growing influence of human activities on the environment is being increasingly
recognized, and concern over the potential for global warming caused by such
anthropogenic effects is growing.
 The warming of earth planet in the past 50 years is majorly driven by human
activities.
 The industrial activities that our modern civilization depends upon have raised
atmospheric carbon dioxide.
 Human induced greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous
oxide have caused much of the observed increase in Earth's temperatures over the
past 50 years.
 The decomposition of wastes in landfills, agriculture, ruminant digestion and
manure management, synthetic compounds manufacturing, clearing of land for
agriculture, industrial activities, and other human activities have increased
concentrations of greenhouse gases.
 The major gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect include Water vapor,
Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane, Nitrous oxide, Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
 Although methane is less abundant in atmosphere, it is by far more active
greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.
 5.5.3. Consequences of Climate Change
 Some of the consequences of the changing climate include:
Impacts on human health: The change can cause increased heat
related mortality and morbidity, greater frequency of infectious
disease epidemics following floods and storms, and substantial
health effects following population displacement to escape extreme
weather events. Climate change also raises the incidence malaria.
Impact on water resources: Climate change is leading to melting
of snow and glaciers that increases rise in sea level, increase
drought and floods, distorts wind flow pattern, decreases water
table. More frequent and longer droughts reduce the amount of
run-off into rivers, streams and lakes.
Impact on Agriculture: changes in temperature and rainfall patterns
as well as significantly affect agricultural production. Climate
change increases physiological stress and fodder quality and
availability.
 5.5.4. Climate Response Mechanisms
 There are three major response mechanisms to
climate change namely mitigation, adaptation and
resilience.
Mitigation and its Strategies
 The goal of mitigations is to avoid significant human
interference with the climate system.
 There are some mitigation measures that can be taken to
avoid the increase of pollutant emissions.
 Practice Energy efficiency
 Increase the use of renewable energy such as solar
 Efficient means of transport implementation: electric public
transport, bicycle, shared cars etc.
 Adaptation and its Strategies
 Adaptation is simply defined as adapting to life in a changing climate.
 It involves adjusting to actual or expected future climate.
 The goal is to reduce our vulnerability to the harmful effects of climate
change such as extreme weather events or food insecurity.
Some of the major adaptation strategies include:
 Building flood defenses
 Plan for heat waves and higher temperatures;
 Installing water-permeable pavements to better deal with floods and
storm water;
 Improve water storage and use are some of measures taken by cities and
towns;
 Landscape restoration and reforestation;
 Flexible and diverse cultivation to be prepared for natural catastrophes
preventive and precautionary measures (evacuation plans, health issues,
etc.)
 1. የጎርፍ መከላከያዎችን መገንባት
2. ለሙቀት ሞገዶች እና ለከፍተኛ ሙቀት ያቅዱ
3. Installing water-permeable pavements to
better deal with floods and storm
water የጎርፍ እና የዝናብ ውሃን በተሻለ ሁኔታ ለመቋቋም
ውሃ-ተላላፊ መንገዶችን መትከል
4. የውሃ ማጠራቀሚያ እና አጠቃቀምን ማሻሻል
በከተሞች እና በከተሞች ከተወሰዱ እርምጃዎች መካከል ጥቂቶቹ ናቸው;

5. የመሬት ገጽታ መልሶ ማቋቋም እና የደን መልሶ ማቋቋም

6. ተለዋዋጭ እና ልዩ ልዩ እርሻዎች ለተፈጥሮ አደጋዎች መዘጋጀት

አለባቸው የመከላከያ እና የጥንቃቄ እርምጃዎች
(የመልቀቂያ እቅዶች ፣ የጤና ጉዳዮች ፣ ወዘተ.