FLUIDPRESSURE

Fluids
&

PRESSUR
E
PRESSURE
 Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a
fluid per unit area.
 Units of pressure are N/m2, which is called a
pascal (Pa).
 Since the unit Pa is too small for pressures
encountered in practice, kilopascal (1 kPa = 103 Pa)
and megapascal (1 MPa = 106 Pa) are commonly
used.
 Other units include bar, atm, kgf/cm2
Pressure
Pressure is the force per unit area, where the force is
perpendicular to the area.

pa= 105 Nm-2

p= _F _
N
Nm-2 A 1psi =6895Pa
m2
(Pa)

This is the Absolute pressure, the pressure compared to a vacuum.

The pressure measured in your tyres is the gauge pressure, p-pa.

Pressure
Pressure in a fluid acts equally in all directions

Pressure in a static liquid increases linearly with depth

p= g  h
pressure increase in
depth (m)
increase
The pressure at a given depth in a continuous, static body of liquid is
constant.

p1 p3 p1 = p2 = p3
p2
 Pressure
Pressure is the ratio of a force F to the area A over which it is
applied:

Pressure = Force
Area ;P = F
A
A = 2 cm2
F (1.5 kg)(9.8
P = =2
m/s
A ) 2 x 10-4 m2
1.5 kg

P = 73,500 N/m2
 The Unit of Pressure (Pascal):

A pressure of one pascal (1 Pa) is defined as a force of one

newton (1 N) applied to an area of one square meter (1
m2).

Pascal: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2

In the previous example the pressure was 73,500

N/m2. This should be expressed as:

P = 73,500 Pa
Fluid exerts forces in many directions. Try to
submerse a rubber ball in water to see that an
upward force acts on the ball.

• Fluids exert pressure in all

directions.
 Pressure vs. Depth in
Fluid
Pressure = force/area

mg m V  Ah
P A; h
V ;
 Vg  Ahg
P A  A
Area
mg

• Pressure at any point in a

fluid is directly proportional Fluid Pressure:

to the density of the fluid

and to the depth in the fluid.
P=
 gh
Independence of Shape and
Area.
Water seeks its own level,
indicating that fluid pressure
is independent of area and
shape of its container.

• At any depth h below the surface of

the water in any column, the pressure
P is the same. The shape and area
are not factors.
 PROPERTIES OF FLUID
PRESSURE

• The forces exerted by a fluid on the walls of its



container are always perpendicular.

•  The fluid pressure is directly proportional to the
depth of the fluid and to its density.
•  At any particular depth, the fluid pressure is
the same in all directions.
•  Fluid pressure is independent of the shape or
area of its container.
Example 2. A diver is located 20 m below the
surface of a lake ( = 1000 kg/m3). What is the
pressure due to the water?

The difference in pressure from

the top of the lake to the diver is:
 = 1000 kg/m3
h

P = gh
h = 20 m; g = 9.8
m/s2

P  (1000 kg/m3 )(9.8 m/s2 )(20 m)

P = 196 kPa
 Atmospheric Pressure
One way to measure atmospheric
P=0
pressure is to fill a test tube with
mercury, then invert it into a bowl at at
m m h
of mercury.

Density of Hg = 13,600 kg/m3 Mercury

Patm = gh h = 0.760 m

Patm = (13,600 kg/m3)(9.8 m/s2)(0.760 m)

Patm = 101,300 Pa
 Absolute Pressure
Absolute Pressure: The sum of the 1 atm = 101.3 kPa
pressure due to a fluid and the
pressure due to atmosphere.
Gauge Pressure: The P = 196 kPa
h
between the absolute pressure and
difference
the pressure due to the atmosphere:

Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + 1 atm

P = 196 kPa Pabs = 196 kPa + 101.3 kPa

1 atm = 101.3 kPa
Pabs = 297 kPa
Pascal’s
Law
• Pressure at any point within the liquid
lying on same horizontal level is same
• An external pressure applied to an
enclosed fluid is transmitted uniformly
throughout the volume of the liquid.
Applications of Pascal's law

• Hydraulic lift
• Hydraulic Brakes
Hydraulic lift

Pressure in = Pressure out

Fin Ain Fout Aout

Fin Fout

Ain
Example 3. The smaller and larger pistons of a
hydraulic press have diameters of 4 cm and 12 cm.
What input force is required to lift a 4000 N weight
with the output piston?

Fin  Fout ; Fin  Fout Ain Ain Aoutt

Ain Aout Aout Fin Fout

D Area  
R  2;
R2
(4000 N)( )(2 cm)2
Fin 
 (6 cm)2
Rin= 2 cm; R out = 6 cm

F = 444 N
 Hydraulic
brake
The hydraulic brake is an arrangement
of braking mechanism which uses brake fluid,
typically containing ethylene glycol, to transfer
pressure from the controlling mechanism to
the braking mechanism. When brakes are
applied suddenly in a moving vehicle, there is
every chance of the vehicle to skid because
the wheels are not retarded uniformly. In
order to avoid this danger of skidding when
the brakes are applied, the brake mechanism
must be such that each wheel is equally and
simultaneously retarded. A hydraulic brake
serves this purpose. It works on the principle
of Pascal’s law.
Hydraulic Brake
SURFACE
TENSION
Surface tension is the property of any
liquid by virtue of which tries to
minimize its free surface area.

Surface tension of a liquid is measured as

the force acting per length on an imaginary
line drawn tangentially on the free surface
the liquid.
If F is the force due to surface tension acting on imaginary line AB
drawn on free surface of the liquid then surface tension is given by:
S=F/L
Cause of surface tension:
SURFACE TENSION

a surface tension force causes a fluid surface to behave like an

elastic sheet

Molecules at the surface feel a net force

The net effect is that the molecules at
the surface of the liquid experience an
inward force toward the bulk.

Such a force pulls the molecules of the

interface together and, as a result,
contracts the surface, resulting in
a surface tension.
 Cohesion and Adhesion

 Adhesive Force
 The force of attraction acting between the molecules of different
substances is called adhesive force, e.g., the force of attracts acting
between the molecules of paper and ink, water and glass, etc.
 Cohesive Force
 The force of attraction acting between the molecules of same
substan is called cohesive force. e.g., the force of attraction acting
between molecules of water, glass, etc.
 Cohesive forces and adhesive forces are van der Waals’ forces.
• Surface tension S = Force/Length = F/l = Work
done/Change in area
• Its SI unit is Nm-1 or Jm-2 and its dimensional formula
is [MT-2].
• It is a scalar quantity.
• Surface tension is a molecular phenomenon which
is due to cohesive force and root cause of the force
is electrical in nature.
• Surface tension of a liquid depends only on the
nature of liquid and independent of the surface
area of film or length of the line .
Applications of surface tension

● A needle placed on water can be made to float due to the surface

tension of water.
Mosquito eggs can float on water because of its surface tension.
Rain drops or soap bubbles are spherical in shape
because for given dimensions surface area of
sphere is least
If we place a cotton thread loop on a soap film gently and prick
the film within the loop then the thread loop acquire circular
shape.
Some other examples:
• Warm water is used for washing purpose as heating
increases the surface area and reduces surface tension.
• Toothpaste contains soap, which reduces the surface tension
and helps it spread freely in the mouth.
• Surface tension prevents water from passing through the
pores of an umbrella.
• Antiseptics like Dettol have low surface tension, so that
they spread faster.
• Medicines used for washing wounds, as Dettol, have a
surface tension lower than water.
• Hot soup is more tasteful than the cold one because the
surface tension of the hot soup is less than that of the cold
and so spreads over a larger area of the tongue.
• Insects and mosquitoes swim on the surface of water in
ponds and lakes due to surface tension. If kerosence oil is
sprayed on the water surface, the surface tension of water is
lowered and the insects and mosquitoes sink in water and
are dead.
• If we deform a liquid drop by pushing it slightly, then due
to surface tension it again becomes spherical.
Factors Affecting Surface Tension

1. Surface tension of a liquid decreases with increase

temperature and becomes zero at critical
temperature.
2. At boiling point, surface tension of a liquid becomes
zero becomes maximum at freezing point.
3. Surface tension decreases when partially soluble
impurities such as soap, detergent, dettol, phenol,
etc are added in water.
 4.Surface tension increases when
highly soluble impurities such as salt
is added in water.
 5.When dust particles or oil spreads
over the surface of water, its surface
tension decreases.
Surface Free Energy and Surface Tension

 The surface layer of a liquid possesses additional

energy as compared to the bulk liquid.

 This energy increases when the surface of the

same mass of liquid increases and is therefore
called surface free energy.
If we increase the free surface area of a liquid
then work has to be done against the force of
surface tension. This work done is stored in
liquid stu-face as potential energy,

This additional potential energy per unit area of

free surface of liquid is called surface energy.
Surface energy (E) = S x ΔA

where. S = surface tension and ΔA = increase in

surface area.
Derivation of surface energy
 Angle of contact
 The surface of liquid near the plane of
contact, with another medium is, in general,
curved.
 The angle between tangent to the liquid
surface inside the liquid is termed as angle of
contact.
 It is denoted by θ.
 It is different at interfaces of different pairs of
liquids and solids. The value of θ determines
whether a liquid will spread on the surface of
a solid or it will form droplets on it.
Angle of contact
 The angle subtended between the tangents drawn at
liquid surface at solid surface inside the liquid at the
point of contact, is called angle of contact.
Angle of contact depends upon the nature of the liquid
and solid contact and the medium which exists above
the free surface of liquid.
For a solid/liquid/gas interface, the adhesion
between the liquid and the solid will curve the
liquid surface to form a meniscus (Greek word for
"crescent").

The angle of contact is always measured through

the liquid.
The forces act along the interfaces, as shown.

FSA is the upward force between the solid and the

gas.
FSL is the downward force between the solid and
the liquid. Forces at contact point shown for
FLA is the inclined force between the liquid and the contact angle greater than 90° (left) and
gas. less than 90° (right)

Resolving the vertical forces, with the proviso that

the force between solid and gas, FSA is much
smaller than the other two forces:
 #When FSL and FLA are in the same direction:
• cos θ is positive i.e. α is less than 90°
. the meniscus is concave, and
• the liquid "wets" the surface.
#When FSL and FLG are in the opposite
direction:
cos θ is negative i.e. α is greater than
90°

the meniscus is convex, and

the liquid does not "wet" the surface.
Angle of contact increases with increase in
temperature.
Angle of contact decreases on adding soluble
impurity to a liquid.
Angle of contact for pure water and glass is
zero.
For ordinary water and glass is 8°.
For mercury and glass is 140°.
For pure water silver is 90°.
For alcohol and clean glass θ = 0°.
 Angle of contact, meniscus, shape of liquid
surface
 If θ is acute angle, i.e; θ <90°, then liquid meniscus will be
concave upwards.
• If θ is 90°, then liquid meniscus will be plane.
• If θ is obtuse, i.e; θ >90°, then liquid meniscus will be convex
upwards.
• If angle of contact is acute angle, i.e; θ <90°, then liquid will wet the
surface.
• If angle of contact is obtuse angle, ie; θ > 90°, then liquid will not wet
the surface.
 Excess Pressure
Difference in pressure on liquid side and that on vapour
side is known as excess pressure.

In the case of a plane liquid surface, the pressure on the liquid side is
equal to the pressure on the vapour side.
But when the free surface of the liquid is curved the pressure on the
liquid side is different from the pressure on the vapour side.
Excess of pressure is always on the concave side
Excess pressure inside a liquid drop
Consider a liquid drop of
radius R. The molecules
lying on the surface of liquid
drop, due to surface tension
will experience resultant
force acting inward to the
surface.
Let S = Surface tension of
liquid drop P = excess
pressure inside the drop Due
to excess of pressure, let
there be increase in the
radius of the drop by a small
Then work
quantity done by the excess pressure. W =
in figure
Force x Displacement
Excess pressure inside a soap bubble

Consider a soap bubble of

radius R. The molecules
lying on the surface of soap
bubble , due to surface
tension will experience
resultant force acting inward
to the surface.
Let S = Surface tension of
soap bubble, P = excess
pressure inside the soap
bubble Due to excess of
pressure, let there be
increase in the radius of the
soap bubble by a small
quantity in figure
 Capillarity
When a glass capillary tube open at both ends is dipped vertically in
water, the water in the tube will rise above the level of water in the
vessel. In case of mercury, the liquid is depressed in the tube below
the level of mercury in the vessel (shown in Figure 7.29). In a liquid
whose angle of contact with solid is less than 90°, suffers capillary
rise. On the other hand, in a liquid whose angle of contact is greater
than 90°, suffers capillary fall
Practical applications of capillarity
• Due to capillary action, oil rises in the cotton
within an earthen lamp.

• Capillary action is also essential for the tear fluid

from the eye to drain constantly.

• Cotton dresses are preferred in summer because

cotton dresses have fine pores which act as
capillaries for sweat.

• Cotton dresses are preferred in summer because

cotton dresses have fine pores which act as
capillaries for sweat.
• The absorption of ink by a blotting paper is due
to capillary action, as the blotting paper is
porous. When it is placed over the ink, the ink
raises into the pores.

• If one end of a towel is dipped into a bucket of

water and the other end hangs over the bucket,
the entire towel soon becomes wet due to
capillary action.

• The supply of water to the leaves at the top of

even a tall tree is through capillary rise.
Expression for height of liquid rise in capillary ( Ascent Formula)
 Viscosity
so far we have considered
only “ideal” liquids  liquids
that can flow without any
resistance
“real” liquids have a
property called viscosity
which is a tendency for the
liquid to resist flowing
Viscosity is the property of fluids due to which
they opposes any relative motion between
their layers
viscosity
for example – pancake syrup flows more
slowly than water – we say that pancake syrup
is more “viscous” than water.
Ketchup and honey are also good examples
viscosity is sometimes referred to as the
“thickness” of a liquid
viscosity is the most important property of
motor oil
 Seeing the effects of viscosity

Pancake
syrup
Substances with higher
viscosity take longer to
flow down the ramp.

viscosity is a measure of the resistance that one

layer of liquid experiences when flowing over
another layer.
some viscosity data
water has a viscosity of about 1 unit
 pancake syrup has a viscosity of 2500
 ketchup has a viscosity of 98,000
 peanut butter has a viscosity of 250,000
 glassis a liquid with a very high viscosity of
1,000,000,000,000,000  it does flow!
 viscosity depends on temperature, e.g. – heating up of
oil decreases its viscosity.
Coefficient of Viscosity:
Consider a liquid flowing steadily over a horizontal fixed layer
(Figure 7.15). The velocities of the layers increase uniformly as
we move away from the fixed layer. Consider any two parallel
layers A and B. Let v and v + dv be the velocities of the
neighboring layers at distances x and x + dx respectively from
the fixed layer.
The force of viscosity F acting tangentially
between two layers and is proportional to:
(i) area A of the liquid and (ii) the velocity
gradient dv/dx

Where the constant of proportionality η is

called the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid
and the negative sign implies that the force is
frictional and it opposes the relative motion.
 Stoke’s law and its applications
When a body falls through a viscous medium, it
drags the layer of the fluid immediately in contact
with it. This produces a relative motion between
the different layers of the liquid. The viscous force
F acting on a spherical body of radius r depends
directly on
i) radius (r) of the sphere
ii) velocity (v) of the sphere and
ii) coefficient of viscosity η of the liquid
Therefore F ∝ η r v
⇒ F=kη rv
Experimentally, Stoke found that the value of
k = 6π
F = 6πη rv
This relation is known as Stoke’s law
 Terminal velocity
The maximum constant velocity acquired by a body while falling
freely through a viscous medium is called the terminal velocity VT.
Expression for terminal velocity:

Consider a sphere of radius r which

falls freely through a highly viscous
liquid of coefficient of viscosity η.
Let the density of the material of the
sphere be ρ and the density of the
fluid be σ.
The forces acting on the sphere
are (i) gravitational force of
the sphere acting vertically
downwards, (ii) upthrust U due
to buoyancy and (iii) viscous
drag acting upwards
Types of fluid flow:
1. Streamline or laminar flow
2. Turbulent flow
Streamlined flow:When a
liquid flows such that each
particle of the liquid passing
through a point moves along
the same path with the same
velocity as its predecessor
then the flow of liquid is said
to be a streamlined flow. It is
also referred to as steady
or laminar flow.
Turbulent flow
The flow of fluid is streamlined up to a certain velocity
called critical velocity. When the speed of the moving
fluid exceeds the critical speed, vc the motion becomes
turbulent. In this case, the velocity individual particles
changes both in magnitude and direction from particle to
particle and hence the do move randomly
Basic principle of fluid motion

Continuity equation: when liquid

flows through a pipe of varying
crossection then

v  A = constant

v1 A1 A2 v2
 Pressure, kinetic and potential energy of liquids

A liquid in a steady flow can possess three kinds of energy. They are (1) Kinetic energy, (2)
Potential energy, and (3) Pressure energy, respectively.
i) Kinetic energy: The kinetic energy of a liquid of mass m moving with a velocity v is
given by

The kinetic energy per unit mass =

Similarly, the kinetic energy per unit volume

ii) Potential energy: The potential energy of a liquid of mass m at a

height h above the ground level is given by
PE = mgh
The potential energy per unit mass
Similarly, the potential energy per unit volume =

ii) Pressure energy: The energy acquired by a fluid by applying

pressure on the fluid. We know that
Pressure = Force/Area ⇒ Force = Pressure × Area
F × d = (P A) × d = P (A × d)
F × d = W = P V = pressure energy
Therefore, pressure energy, EP = PV The pressure energy per unit
mass =

Similarly, the potential energy per unit volume =

 Bernoulli’s theorem and its applications
According to Bernoulli’s theorem, the sum of pressure energy,
kinetic energy, and potential energy per unit mass of an
incompressible, non-viscous fluid in a streamlined flow remains a
constant.

Mathematically,
Application of
Bernoulli’s Theorem
 AIRFOIL

• Bernoulli’s
Principle is
what allows
birds and
planes to fly.
• The secret
behind flight is
‘under the
wings.’
 LIFT

THRUST
DRAG
GRAVIT
Y
On top: greater air speed and less air pressure

On bottom: less air speed and more air pressure

V2
v1
2) Spoiler – airfoil reversed:
3) Attraction between two
closely parallel moving boats
(or cars):
When two boats or buses move
side by side in the same direction,
the water (or air) in the region
between them moves faster than that
on the remote sides. Consequently in
accordance with Bernoulli’s principle
the pressure between them is reduced
and hence due to pressure difference
they are pulled towards each other
creating the so called attraction.
4) Action of atomiser:
The action of carburetor,
paint-gun, scent-spray or
insect-sprayer is based on
Bernoulli’s principle. In all these,
by means of motion of a piston P in a cylinder C, high
speed air is passed over a tube T dipped in liquid L to be
sprayed. High speed air creates low pressure over the tube
due to which liquid (paint, scent, insecticide or petrol) rises
in it and is then blown off in very small droplets with
expelled air.
5) Blowing off roofs by wind storms: During a tornado or
hurricane, when a high speed wind blows over a straw or tin
roof, it creates a low pressure (P) in accordance with
Bernoulli’s principle.

However, the pressure below

the roof (i.e., inside the room)
is still atmospheric (= Pₒ). So
due to this difference of
pressure the roof is lifted up
and is then blown off by the
wind.
 6) Functioning of Bunsen burner
In this, the gas comes out of the nozzle with high velocity, hence
the pressure in the stem decreases. So outside air reaches into the
burner through an air vent and the mixture of air and gas gives a
blue flame as shown in Figure :
7) Magnus effect: When a spinning ball is thrown, it deviates from
its usual path in flight. This effect is called Magnus effect and
plays as important role in tennis, cricket and soccer, etc. as by
applying appropriate spin the moving ball can be made to curve in
any desired direction.
8.Heart Attacks & Bernoulli
Bernoulli’s principle helps in explaining blood flow in
artery. The artery may get constricted due to the
accumulation of plaque on its inner walls. In order to
drive the blood through this constriction a greater
demand is placed on the activity of the heart.

The speed of the flow of the blood in this region is

raised which lowers the pressure inside and the artery
may collapse due to the external pressure. The heart
exerts further pressure to open this artery and forces
the blood through. As the blood rushes through the
opening, the internal pressure once again drops due
to same reasons leading to a repeat collapse. This
may result in heart attack.