The Culture of Death:

Terrorist Organizations and

Suicide Bombing
Ami Pedahzur
National Security Studies Center
University of Haifa
Harrington Fellow Department of Government
University of Texas, Austin
E-mail: pedahzur@poli.haifa.ac.il

Prepared for Presentation at the

Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars
February 17th, 2005.
 What is Suicide Bombing?
• Similar to other manifestations of terrorism, suicide
bombing aims at destroying or damaging a specific target.
• However, in most cases, the real intention is to create an
atmosphere of terror.
• As the terrorists perceive it, public pressure in the wake of
this collective anxiety should also be translated into
political gains.
• The principal difference between suicide bombings and
other types of terrorism (including earlier manifestations of
suicide terrorism), is embedded, in a tactical perspective.
• The terrorist’s death, by means of the detonation of an
explosive charge, is an integral part of the execution of the
operation and constitutes an essential condition of its
success.
Suicide Bombing as a Growing
Modern Phenomenon
Suicide bombing is steadily
growing throughout the world. 80

70 71 70

60

55
50

40
40

30

26 20
22 21
17
10
22
11 10
0
7
6

2003
2002
2001
2

2000
3

1999
8

1998
3
1997
3
1996
1
1995
1994
1993

2
1992
1991
1990

1
1988
1987
1986
1985
1984
1983
1982
Suicide Bombing in the Middle East
and other Parts of the World
Over the last few years suicide bombing has
60
become predominantly a Middle Eastern
Phenomenon. 50

40

30

20

10

2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1990
1988
1987
1986
1985
1984
1983

Other Parts of the Wrold M iddle East

 Is Suicide Bombing Motivated by
?Religion or Culture
• Suicide Bombing is not
90
solely an Islamic 89
phenomenon. 80

• The LTTE, which until 70

70
recently initiated the majority
60
of suicide attacks, is a radical
Tamil organization. 50

• The Fatah is predominantly a 40 42

nationalist organization. 35
30 34
• The ideology of the Kurdish 29 28

PKK is Marxist Leninist. 20 23

17 16
• Hence, religion cannot be 10

treated as independent 0
variable. LTTE Hamas PIJ Fatah Hizballah Iraqi Chechens Al-Qaida
Terrorists
PKK Al-Qaida
Affiliated
Groups
 Is Suicide Bombing a Rational
?Organizational Phenomenon
• Recent studies in the field treat leaders of terrorist
organizations as rational actors and the suicide bombing
phenomenon as a strategy or a tactic.

• According to Pape (2003) 95% of suicide attacks worldwide

were initiated by organizations. The organization will use
this strategy only as long as it serves its purpose.

• In order to carry out a successful suicide campaign there is

also a need for individuals who will perpetrate the acts and a
community which will support them.

• Hence, the organizations make efforts to glorify suicide

missions and to instill a ‘culture of death’ within the
community.
 A Model For Describing and Explaining Suicide Bombing

External
Organizational
Factors: Domestic
Factors
Strategic Considerations Factors:
Tactical Considerations Competition with other Organizations
Internal Problems
Elite Level:
Decision to Turn to
Suicide Bombing

Organizational Level:
Society Level Recruitment, Training, and Suicide Bombing
Dispatching

Personal Level:
Decision to Become
a Suicide Bomber

Commitment Crisis
 Communities which support Suicide
Bombings
Organization Conflict Community
Since the
Discrimination and establishment of
Suffering modern Lebanon the
Shiites suffered from
Hizballah National Ethnic
discrimination.
Things got worse since
the eruption of the civil
war in 1975.
The establishment of
the State of turned
many into refugees.
Hopeless and Powerless Palestinians National Territorial The 1967 war and the
Israeli occupation of
the territories made
things even worse.
The Tamils were
discriminated against
since the
independence of Sri
Empowerment by the LTTE Ethnic Territorial Lanka. The situation
Organization became worse in the
1970s and 1980s with
‘Culture of Death’ the ethnocratization
process of the country.
The Kurds were never
recognized by the
Turkish government as
a national minority.
National Ethnic
PKK They suffered from
Territorial
Support for Suicide discrimination and
Bombings were denied and
lingual or cultural
rights.
 Campaigns of Suicide Bombings
(per year)
Suicide bombings usually appear in waves, or campaigns.
30
A campaign rarely lasts more than three years.
25

20

15

10

-5
1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

LTTE 1 0 0 0 1 0 2 6 1 2 4 13 12 4 8 9 20 5 0 1
Ham as 2 4 3 3 3 2 0 3 22 15 12
PIJ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 3 1 2 1 0 1 10 14 5
Hizballah 1 3 2 20 3 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Fatah 26 7
PKK 3 0 3 9 0 1
Iraqi Terrorists 20
Chechens 8 2 3 9
Al-Qaida 0 1 0 0 2 0 1 4 6 3
 Hizballah and the Palestinian
Organizations
25 30

25
20
Israeli Targeted
Israeli Withdrawal to Assasinations
Invasion the Security 2000
Zone Israeli Defensive
20
Withdrawal Sheild
from Lebanon
15 The Wall

Hamas
Hizballah PIJ 15
Fatah
Al-Aqsa
10 Intifada

10

Oslo
Accords

5
Multinational
5
Forces

0 0
1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
 LTTE and The PKK
25
10
Capture of
Ocalan in Kenya
9

20 8
Attempts to Assault on the
Reach a PKK’s Strongholds
Military Settlement 7
Assault in
Jaffna
15 6
Indo-Sri Lankan Second Assault on the
Accord
Military Sentencing of
Attempt to PKK’s Strongholds
5 Ocalan
Dismantle the
Indian LTTE
Withdrawal

10 4

Military
Assault 3

2
5

0
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
 The Study of Personal Motivations
• The first generation of scholars in the field focused
on the socio-demographic characteristics and the
psychological motivations of the suicide bombers.

• Most of these studies came to the conclusion that

suicide bombers exhibit no distinct features,
especially with regard to their psychological traits.

• The second generation of studies emphasized the

role of social networks and the surrounding
community in supporting the phenomenon.
 Types of Individual Motivations
Individual Motivations can vary.

• Two types are prominent: Crisis Organizational Supporting

and Commitment Decision Environment
• Communal Crisis – results from
continuous repression of a group
to which the individual belongs.
• Personal Crisis – mostly results
from pain inflicted by the enemy, it Crisis Commitment to Commitment to Ideology
can also be an outcome of social Communal or Personal Family or Friends Leader or Comrades
problems.
• Commitment within a social or
family network.
• Commitment within and
organizational framework.
• These motivations are not mutually
exclusive.
• Crisis can lead to commitment. Suicide Bombing
 The Palestinian Case
• Prior to the Intifada most of the suicide bombers had a similar
social profile.
• They all belonged to a totalistic organizational environment.
Often these organizations operated from Israeli jails.
• During the Intifada years the profile of the suicide bombers
changed.
• Their stories indicate that most of them suffered a crisis prior
to the attack. Many of them approached activists and
volunteered for suicide missions.
• Another group of suicide bombers (over 25%) came from local,
loosely organized networks which were based on kinship and
social ties.
• These networks replaced the organizational frameworks which
fell apart.
The Changing Characteristics of
Palestinian Suicide Terrorism
Distribution Of Suicide Attacks By Organization Distribution Of Suicide Attacks By Organization
1993-1999 2000-2004

Hamas Fatah PIJ PFLP

Hamas PIJ
3.4%
23.8% 40.1%

39.4%

60.6%
32.7%

Ide ological Dis tribution Of Suicide B ombe rs Ide ological Dis tribution Of Suicide Bombe rs
1993-1999 2000-2004

Re ligious Religious Nationalist Left-Wing

3.4%
32.7%

100.0%

63.9%
The Changing Characteristics of
Palestinian Suicide Terrorists
Dis tribution of Suicide B ombe rs by Ge nde r Average Age of Palestinian Suicide Bombers
2000-2004

Male
Fe male
21.71
5.4% 2000-2004

23.21
1993-1999

94.6%

20 21 22 23 24

Suicide Bombe rs Forme r Expe rie nce in Te rroris m Suicide Bombe rs Forme r Expe rie nce in Te rroris m
1993-1999 2000-2004

28.6% 24.2%

71.4%
75.8%

Forme r Expe rie nce

Forme r Expe rie nce
No Forme r Expe rie nce No Forme r Expe rie nce
 Networks of Suicide Bombers
Childhood Friends, Kinship, Jail Experience
Moawiya Bashar
M o h a m m e d H a ssa n e in -
Jarara Sawalha
(S u ic id e A tta c k a t
(Suicide Attack at (Suicide Attack at K a rk u r Ju n c tio n -
Jerusalem Jerusalem 2 1 .1 0 .2 0 0 2 )
4.9.1997) 4.9.1997)
H am za Sam udi
All of the Group members (S u ic id e A tta c k a t M e g id o
were neighbors and close S o u l m a te s Ju n c tio n - 5 .6 .2 0 0 2 )
friends from young age and
were recruited by Mahmoud
C lo se F rie n d
Abu Hanude

A sh ra f a l-A sm a r -
(S u ic id e A tta c k a t
Youssef Tawfiq K a rk u r Ju n c tio n -
Shouli Yassin 2 1 .1 0 .2 0 0 2 )
(Suicide Attack at (Suicide Attack at
Jerusalem 30.7.97) Jerusalem
4.9.1997)

Team member
Hamze Al Kawasmeh -
Basma Dahayneh Team member Team Member
Assassinate a settler Near
(Zughayar) Mujaheed Hamzeh Abu Shkhedeh -
Hebron and Suicide attack
Al-Jaabri - Killed During
Maried Sister at The Negohot
Suicide Attack at A-Ram Demonstration
Settlement (17.1.2003)
Checkpoint (11.12.2000)
Near Jerusalem (18.5.2003)
Suleiman Musa Yusef Ali Mohammed
Dahayneh Zughayar
Became close friends in the Israeli jail
(Suicide attack at (Suicide attack at
Team Member
Jerusalem 6.11.1998) Jerusalem 6.11.1998) Bassem Takrouri - Suicide
Attack in Jerusalem
Sender Hamas Leaders In Hebron (18.5.2003)
Sender
Team Member Abdullah Kawasmeh (Manager of
Muhammad Mahmoud Hamdan the Soccer Team)
Mahmoud Baker Osama Nimer Darwish Kawasmeh - Suicide
Close Friends
Nasser Iayd Hardan Abu el Heija Attack in Haifa (5.3.2003) Ahmed Bader
(Suicide attack in Close friends (Head of PIJ in Sender (Suicide bomber in
Kiryat Mozkin Samaria) Hadera, 25/05/2001)
12.08.2001) Team Member
Fuad Kawasmeh - Suicide
Attack In Hebron
Sender (17.5.2003)

Ala Hilal Abdel Satar Team Member Team Member

Sabbah Close Friends
Hazem Kawasmeh - Fadi Fakhuri - Suicide
(Suicide attack at Participated in the same suicide attack
Suicide Attack in Hebron Attack in Hebron
Hadera, 25/5/2001) (7.3.2003) (7.3.2003)
 A Proposed Model for Coping with Suicide
Terrorism
Offensive Defensive

Intelligence Gathering Prevention

Short
Term

Targeted Military
Strikes Crisis Management
Reconstruction

Eradication of Terrorist Negotiations

Term
Long

Infrastructure Humanitarian aid to the

Imprisonment of Population
Terrorist Leaders Creation of Trust