Integrated Pest Management

• Dynamic process of monitoring, evaluating

& decision-making
• Understanding of the crop and pest
• Site specific
• Pest populations
• Eradication is not usually an option
• Utilise all available control options
• Includes judicious use of pesticides
• Stewards of the environment
• Keep records & re-evaluate
What bugs you?
 What is a pest?
• The concept of a ‘pest’ has meaning only in a human
context: a pest is an organism that ‘man’ regards as
harmful to his person, property or environment.
• Man makes an organism a pest as soon as he requires
something it needs and which he is not prepared to
share with it; and he frequently makes it a “worse”
pest by manufacturing an environment that favors its
increase and survival.
There are 6 main
components of IPM:

1. Prevention
2. Identification
3. Monitoring & Record
Keeping
4. Thresholds
5. Integrated Controls
6. Evaluation & Record
Keeping
 Prevention
• Your first line of defense.
• How are you going to achieve this?
 Prevention
Specific - Your Yard
• Right plant for the right place
General
– Neighbouring plants
– Soil pH
Climate – Moisture and drainage
Native plants – Exposure to sun/wind
• Good plant care
– Fertilization
– irrigation
• Sanitation
– Raking
– Compost
– Disinfest pruning
equipment
 Identification
Before any decision can be made about
treating a pest, the problem has to be correctly
identified
 Identification
• Critical to future success
– mis-diagnosis leads to mismanagement
• Identify the plant (genus, species, cultivar)
• If there is a problem, is it biotic or abiotic?
• Correct ID of insects
should include whether
the insect is damaging,
helpful or neutral
Monitoring & Record Keeping
 Monitoring & Recording
• Has to be a regular, systematic inspection of plants or
crops to determine if pests are approaching a damaging
level
• Essential to establish trends and patterns in pest outbreaks
• Provides info about when and where problems have
occurred
• Incorporates info about control measures, crop history and
health
• Effects of abiotic factors
 Monitoring
• Correct sampling helps eliminate the guesswork in
pest control
• Provides a means to quantify an old
problem or
discovering a
new one
• Accurate sampling
is systematic and
methodical
 Monitoring Tools
• Pruners/knife • Trowel or soil probe
• Vials & sample bags • pH meters
• Maps • Thermometers
• Camera • Insect net
• Hand lens • Note pad
 Thresholds
• How many bugs are too many?
 Thresholds
• A low level of plant injury may not cause enough
monetary
damage to justify
the time or expense
of pest control
• These sub-economic
losses are simply
part of the cost of
doing business
 Thresholds
• At some point in the growth of a pest population, it
reaches a point where it begins to cause enough
damage to justify the
time and expense of
control measures
• But how does one know
when this point is
reached?
– Need a threshold
population level
 Definitions
Injury Damage
…is defined as the …is defined as the
physical harm or monetary value lost to
destruction to a valued the commodity as a
commodity caused by
the presence or activity result of the injury by
of a pest the pest
Eg. Eg.
tunneling in wood loss of quality
consuming leaves reduction in yield
 Thresholds
• To a great extent, the answer depends
on two fundamental pieces of economic
information:
A. How much financial loss is the pest causing?
B. How much will it cost to control the pest?
What can thresholds do for you?
• Control action
thresholds are a basic
IPM component that
provides information
about when to treat to
avoid losses from pests.
 Thresholds can help…

• When based on biological and

economic information, it can-
– Improve profits

– Reduce unwanted environmental impacts

– Reduce the risk of pest damage

 When using thresholds its
important to remember…
-Flexibility in their application
and awareness of…
– management practices and
– marketing standards
…that may impact threshold levels
IPM THRESHOLDS
-Set levels that a
pest population
must reach before
treatment to
control the pest
can begin
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
THRESHOLDS
• May change with • Must be constantly
different stages of crop revised to account for
development new pests, new
• Can vary from variety varieties, new
to variety management practices,
• Can be developed by new marketing
the grower to suit their standards and variation
IPM needs in commodity prices
TYPES OF IPM THRESHOLDS

IPM Thresholds

Economic Injury
Action Threshold Aesthetic Threshold
Level
ECONOMIC INJURY LEVELS
• The lowest pest density at which economic
damage occurs.
• The level where the cost of the control measure is
equal to the loss likely to be inflicted by the pest.
• If pest populations reaches this boundary,
economic damage will occur.
• This threshold is above the action threshold, the
action threshold must be achieved first, before
this threshold can be reached.
 Action Threshold

• The pest density at which some control should

be exerted to prevent a pest population from
increasing further and causing economic loss.
AESTHETIC THRESHOLDS
The level at which a pest
causes an undesirable
change in the appearance
of something, typically
ornamental plants. This
threshold is used by
homeowners and in parks
and other public places.
 Thresholds are developed using the
following factors as guidelines:

• How large the pest population can grow before

it causes damage.
• How much damage can be tolerated.
• Amount of damage that can be prevented by
control measures.
• Monetary loss associated with various levels of
damage.
 Threshold Development (continued)

• Monetary cost of the control measures and is the

control method effective.
• The history of the field, its pest problems in the
past and the distribution of these pests.
• Ultimate destination of the crop, what is the
standard of the end user.
• Establish a treatment level that keeps the pest
population small enough so it does not cause an
unacceptable level of damage.
 Who develops Thresholds?

The thresholds can

be developed by
their users
 Importance of Thresholds

• For decision making on scheduling of

control and what control methods to use
• To establish the optimal amount of control
which can be used to minimize risks of
economic damage and environmental
hazards
What happens if you don’t use
Thresholds?

You will be
gambling in your
pest control
decisions!
 Pest Outbreak
• A pest outbreak, by definition, occurs whenever the
value of "A“ (financial) is greater than the value of
"B“ (control)
• Actual losses are easy to measure in agricultural or
industrial settings because commodity values are well
established by commerce and trade
– Fruit and vegetables have an
associated value to them,
on the market
 Economic Injury Level
• The break-even point, where "A"="B", is known as
the economic injury level (EIL)
• The population density at which the cost to control
the pest equals the amount of damage it inflicts
(actual or potential)
 Change in Pest Population
Density Over Time
Population Density

Economic Injury Level

Time
 Action Threshold
• Entomologists define a point below the
economic injury level at which a decision is
made to treat or not treat
• This decision point is called the action
threshold (AT)
– The pest density at which steps are first taken to
ensure that a potential pest population never exceeds
its economic injury level
Economic Injury Level

Action Threshold
 Definitions
Economic Injury Economic or Action
Level Threshold
• The number of pests at • The number of pests at
which the cost to control which a decision to treat
them equals the amount or not is made
of damage they are • The decision point;
causing usually is lower than
• Cost/benefit ratio EIL because of time
delay
Economic Decision Levels
For Pest Populations
Seven Control Strategies of IPM
1. Cultural
 Suppress pest problems by minimizing the
conditions they need to live
 Planting plants that are adapted to your growing
conditions
 Strong plants resist
diseases, outgrow
weeds and are less
likely to succumb
to insects
Cultural Controls
 Sanitation  Harvesting
 Tillage  Livestock management
 Crop rotation  Trap crops
 Seeding  Crop site
 Crop fertilization
2. Physical
Temperature
Moisture
Light
Sound
Seven Control Strategies of IPM
3. Genetic
 Use pest-resistant plant varieties
developed by classical plant breeding
 Genetically engineered pest resistant
plants, such as Bt corn or potatoes.
 There are also special uses of genetic
techniques on pests themselves, such as
"sterile male" insect releases.
Seven Control Strategies of IPM
4. Biological
 Define ‘biological control’

 Use predators, parasites and diseases

of pests in a targeted way to suppress

pest populations.
 Use of microbial diseases of pests

have become part of the chemical

pesticide registration process.
Seven Control Strategies of IPM
Biological
a) conservation and encouragement of naturally
occurring biocontrol organisms by cultural
techniques or at least avoidance of harming them
b) augmentation of naturally occurring species by
purchasing and releasing more of the same
c) "classical" biological control in which new
biocontrol species specific to pests are sought and
introduced
Seven Control Strategies of IPM
5. Mechanical
Prevent pest access to the host or area
Fly swatter
Sticky traps and bands
Barriers
Hand pulling
Seven Control Strategies of IPM
6. Regulatory/Legislative
Regulatory control refers to the role played by
government agencies in trying to stop the entry or
spread of pests into an area or into the country via:
 Inspection
 Quarantine
 Destruction of infested material,
 Other methods.
Seven Control Strategies of IPM
7. Chemical
 There are many "chemicals" that are used in pest
management situations
 Not all chemicals are alike from the standpoint of
their:
 Range of action
 Toxicity
 Persistence in the
environment
Seven Control Strategies of IPM
Chemical ‘Biorationals’
 Biorational chemicals are those that
 Are less universally toxic
 Target a specific aspect of pest biology

 Examples:
 diatomaceous earth used
to scratch the surface of
insects to dehydrate them
 microbial pesticides that
affect only a specific
group of insects
Seven Control Strategies of IPM
Chemical ‘Conventional’
 Conventional pesticides currently refers to synthetically
produced compounds that act as direct toxins
 nerve poisons
 stomach poisons

 There are many

new classes of
chemicals being
added to the older
conventional
pesticides
Evaluation
Did it work?
Use sampling tools as
described to compare
pest activity before and
after treatment
What changes to the
system would make it
better?
Record Keeping
 Record-keeping is simply a
systematic approach to learning
from experience
 Provide info about when &
where pest problems have
occurred
 Incorporate info about cultural
practices & their effect on pest &
beneficials
 Effects of non-biotic factors
Benefits of IPM
Promotes sound structures and healthy plants, which
better withstand damage from pests.
Reduces the need for pesticides by using several pest
management methods.
Reduces excessive or unnecessary pesticide
applications, which can negatively affect human
health and the environment.
Benefits of IPM
Promotes clean water. If water leaving your home
contains pesticides, these can pollute streams,
groundwater, or coastal regions.
Typically provides long-term control of pests, as
opposed to more conventional short-term treatments.
Usually costs less to use IPM control methods.
Important Considerations
 IPM requires a greater level of pest life cycle knowledge and
maybe more labour intensive and requires commitment
 Biological and cultural controls may not offer an immediate high
level of control as chemical control
 Pests previously under control in a managed spray system using
broad insecticide chemicals may become damaging
 Some temporary damage may occur in the change from chemical
spray system to integrated system
Introduction

The idea of managing pest populations started when
farmers manipulated pest populations by using
resistant host plants and biological control agents to
reduce pest populations.
After the Second World War, the use of
chemical pesticides became popular and other
control methods were left out until serious

problems occurred such as the development of
resistance, pest resurgence, secondary pest
outbreaks, killing of beneficial and non-target
organisms, and contamination of human and
animal food, water and air resources.
With these problems, an innovation was made in

pest control in the 70’s.
The use of biological control and resistant host
plants was revived, this time combined with
pesticides.
This was called Integrated Pest Control (IPC).
 In the 80’s, the concept of integrating all control
approaches was tried and popularized and the term
Integrated Pest Management was used.

 However, there were situations where crop and pests
populations were so well managed that pesticides
were not necessary (e.g., in most rice production
areas).
 There were times when no single control action was
applied.


 The concept to grow crops sustainably without
destroying the environment and to optimize farm
profit for sustainable growth led to the development
of Pest Management.

 This term has been accepted by the Pest Management
Council of the Philippines (PMCP) since 1994.
A committee created by the PMCP in 1994 composed


of crop protection specialist representing
entomologists, plant pathologist, weed scientists, the
International Rice Research Institute, the pesticide
industries and the academe discussed and agreed on
the definition and concept of Pest Management.

The PMCP Board finally approved its use on April,

1994.
The committee defined pest
management as:
 “The manipulation of pest populations
using a dynamic and intelligent decision
making process to optimize the effects of
natural regulatory factors avoid
economic damage and minimize adverse
side effects on the environment”.
 
The intelligent decision is based on the
knowledge of the biology and ecology of
pest and their environment to employ
pest regulatory actions that are
biologically, economically, socially and
politically acceptable.
Economic damage as defined here is when the
value of the damage is greater than the cost of
controlling the pest.

However, it is important that the pest manager
should recognize the concept of Plant
Damage Threshold (PDT) and Economic
Threshold Level (ETL).
 
The Plant Damage Threshold refers to the
highest pest population density that would
not cause any reduction on the yield, while
Economic Threshold Level refers to the
highest amount of pest damage that would
not cause any economic damage.
These terms are important in order to have a
wider space in deciding when to apply
artificial pest control.
The implementation of pest management
requires the application of ecological
principles in regulating pest populations.

 The role of pests in the maintenance of a
relatively stable relationships among the living
and non-living components of the
agroecosystem should be recognized.
 Pest species must be maintained at a non-

damaging level by optimizing the regulatory
effects of natural control.
 Natural control is defined as the regulation
of pest populations by the environment
without man’s intervention.
 
The stability of the agroecosystem
would require the maintenance of a
relatively diverse system. Pests are
maintained at a low population
density as an essential part of the
agroecosystem.
The cost of controlling pests constitutes more than

20% of the cost of crop production.
For the last four decades, most of this has been
spent on pesticides.
The increasing cost of pest control coupled with
the side effects of the use of pesticides suggests the
search for new methods of pest control.
 
1. The development of resistance or tolerance of pest to
pesticides.
 Over 250 species of pest have been reported resistant
to pesticides.
Some of these are cross -resistant.
This means that after the species had developed
resistance to one group of pesticides, they
automatically became resistant to other groups of
pesticides even if they had not been exposed to them
before.
 
2. The contamination of pesticide residues in
food and feed crops, soil, water and air.
3. The accumulation of some pesticides in the
living organism and the increasing
concentration of these pesticides as they are
passed from organism to another in the food
chain. 
This is called biological magnification. For
example, the insecticide DDT was widely used
before (since World War II) to control
mosquitoes in home because it was believed to
be safe.
But this pesticide is very persistent. It is not
easily degraded.
From the houses it was carried by rain water to

creeks, then to the rivers, and lakes.
While in the water, it was absorbed by
phytoplankton at a low (.001%) concentration.
When the phytoplankton was eaten by zoo
plankton, DDT was absorbed and concentrated in
its fat bodies at a higher concentration.
The zoo plankton was eaten by small fish and
which in turn was eaten by big fishes, and the
big fishes were eaten by birds or by humans.

In each organism in this food chain, DDT
accumulated in the fat bodies.
When some mother’s milk was tested in
Laguna de Bay, DDT was found in some
mothers even if this pesticide was last used 20
or 30 years ago.
In birds, the concentration on fat bodies was many

thousands more than in the phytoplankton.
This was found to reduce egg production, and
survival of birds.
4. Many pesticides especially those classified as broad
spectrum can kill many living organisms including
species such as the natural enemies of pests including
humans. 
5. Outbreak of major pests at higher densities sprayed
with pesticides because their natural enemies had
also been killed.
6. Outbreak of minor or secondary pests due to the
development of resistance and also killing of their
natural enemies.
 
7. Increased demand for pesticide-free
products.

8. To conserve our dollar reserves because

almost pesticides are imported.
 
There are three main objectives of pest management.
These are:
1) to utilize the most effective technique in regulating
pest populations below economic levels;
2) to optimize profits from pest regulatory actions; and
3) to maintain a relatively healthful and sustainable
productive environment.

 The third objective would require an

ecological approach and, if possible, pesticides
should be used only when necessary.


The elements of pest management are a set
of information that should be established before
implementing a satisfactory pest management
program. These are the requirements to the
success of a pest management program: knowledge
of:
1. The crop and its growing requirements


2. Value of the crop and your financial
capabilities.
3. The major pests and their natural
enemies and the ways to identify them.
4. The biology and ecology of the pests
and their natural enemies.
 
5. Adequate sampling
techniques.
6. The effectiveness of natural
regulatory factors.
7. Pest density, damage, and
yield relationship.
The different methods of regulating pest populations:

1. Legal method.
 This would refer to the use of local, national or
international laws passed by authorities in order to
prevent the entry, distribution and outbreak of pests.
 An example of this method is the implementation of
strict quarantine laws.
The Plant Quarantine Decree of 1970 or Presidential
Decree 1433 requires that all agricultural imports be
inspected by quarantine officers and treated if pests are
found on them.
This law will prevent the entry of pests into our country
but if the pest is already introduced, the law provides
authority to quarantine officers to prevent its spread
within the country.
 
 Black bug of rice – originally introduced from
Sabah, Malaysia into Palawan, now it is already in
Mindanao.
 Mango pulp weevil – this pest was also accidentally
introduced from Borneo into Palawan, it must be
contained in Palawan.
 Coffee berry borer – this was originally introduced
from West Africa to Malaysia and Indonesia and now
it is already in Mindanao.
 Cadang-cadang disease of coconut – in Bicol
 South American leaf blight of rubber – this
disease affecting rubber is only found in Brazil,

South America. Efforts must be exerted to prevent
the introduction of this pest to Southeast Asia.
 Golden apple snail – “golden kuhol”, is one
example of a pest that was introduced first in Luzon
as food for human beings. It escaped cultivation
and became a serious pest of rice.
In some towns of Laguna, farmers are
required to catch and kill rodents at least
once a year. 
The cotton farmers are required to destroy
their crops after harvest in order to prevent
the multiplication and spread of pink
bollworm and other cotton insect pests.
2) Cultural regulatory techniques.

 The effects of cultural regulatory techniques on pest
population are poorly documented and are
underestimated by both agricultural extension
workers and farmers.
 However, this method of regulating pest
populations could be the most effective, cheapest
and least destructive to the environment.
a.Selecting the best place and time of

planting including the timing of flower
induction.
 Traditional farmers in the past would wait until
the appearance of the full moon before they
would plant the seeds.
 This was dismissed by some modern farmers
and extension workers as superstitious but
recently researchers from the University of
California at Berkeley and from UPLB –
Biological Central Laboratory observed that
noctuid moths are active during full moon.
 Most of them emerge from the pupa a few days

before full moon and lay fertile eggs few days
after full moon.
 When you plant the seeds at this time, your plant
would have at least one month more time to
grow and become tolerant to pest damage before
another batch of egg-laying moths will be
available.
 Inducing mango to flower at one time within your
farm may reduce the problem of the destructive
leafhoppers because the population will be deleted.

 While if you would induce your mango to flower
continuously the leafhopper shall continuously
reproduce, it would only transfer from one mango
tree to another because the female mango
leafhopper can live for one year and it will only
reproduce if the mango is in bloom.
In the case of potato wilt, highly

elevated areas and those areas planted
to grasses for 10 or more years will
produce good potato without the
bacterial wilt disease.
b.The use of resistant (tolerant) varieties.

 There are now many varieties of any crop produced


by government and non-government organizations
but I would recommend that you choose the
tolerant ones so that your crop can support higher
pest population without losing its yield.
 The existence of pest populations can support the
natural enemies of the pest in the field.
c. The use of high quality seeds and fast growing
plants. Healthy and vigorously growing plants are
more tolerant to pest damage.

d. Land preparation. Thorough land preparation
(plowing and harrowing) if done early at the end of
each crop season can reduce pest populations the
following season due to the following reasons:
 the food plants of the pests will be removed or reduced;
 the favorable place where pests can hide will be eliminated;
 exposure of pests to adverse environmental conditions and natural
enemies; and
 killing directly soil insects and some pupa by early cultivation.
e) The use of trap crops.
Highly attractive plants may be planted to
concentrate crop pest species on them instead

of the pests feeding on your main crop.
These plants may not be susceptible to the
pests or they are not economically important.
The other pest regulatory techniques may be
directed only on these attractive plants without
contaminating the main crop especially when
pesticides are used.
 
One good example is the use of sweet corn
to attract the cotton bollworm for the main
cotton plants.
The corn must be interplant within the
cotton plants in single or double rows 10
meters apart.
The bollworm female moth will not be able to
detect the corn plants if planted more than 12
meters.

The bollworm larvae will be destroyed when the
corn is harvested green.
In the field where sweet corn was used as trap
crop, over 25 eggs were noted on fresh sweet corn
silk while no eggs were found on the adjacent
cotton plants.
In corn, the bollworm is concentrated on

the corn silk and they eat each other during
their third instar and so even if many of the
eggs will hatch only one will survive.
Hence, you are already utilizing their own
behavior to regulate their population.
f) Strip cropping or strip harvesting.
This method requires planting or
harvesting alternately in strips especially

if one of the crops is highly preferred but
is not affected by the pest.
One good example is the control of the
Lygus bug in California on cotton plants.
Before strip cropping was employed over
50% of the chemicals used in cotton was
directed against lygus bug.
The lygus bug prefers alfalfa to cotton.

Although cotton plants are not preferred by
the lygus bug, when alfalfa, a leguminous
plant, is harvested the lygus bug will just
transfer to the cotton plants and cause
yellowing and stunting of the cotton plants.
The alfalfa plants are not damaged because
the leaves and the stems are harvested as
feed to cattle.
When alfalfa is planted in between cotton fields and
when alfalfa is harvested by strip, the lygus bug did
not transfer anymore to thee cotton plants and so no
spraying is required. 
This results to good biological control of late pests
because spraying in the past destroyed a lot of natural
enemies of pests that occurred later in the season.
 Now no spraying is required on cotton plants in
California because other non-chemical regulatory
techniques are used.
g. The use of mulch.
 This is one way of conserving soil moisture
and controlling weeds but the absence of

weeds and the presence of adequate moisture
will make the plants more tolerant to pest
damage especially during the dry season.
 Mulch will also protect the natural enemies of
pests.
 
For example, in mulched corn field the density and
variety of earwigs are much higher than in
unmulched corn field.
 The earwigs hide during the day under the mulch
and feed on corn borer and corn earworm at night.
 When there is flooding due to rain or irrigation, the
earwigs are saved from drowning by the mulch.
 In unmulched fields, some surviving earwigs could
be washed away by irrigation water.
h. The use of adequate and complete fertilizer
can reduce pest populations.


 High nitrogen fertilization will make the
plants more susceptible to plant pathogens and
defoliators.
 The use of organic manures will also encourage
beneficial organism in the soil that would
inhibit the survival of pests especially
nematodes and soil pathogens.
 Succulent tissues
i. Crop rotation.
 This cultural method is effective especially
against nematodes, soil pathogens, and insect
pests. 
j. The use of irrigation, flooding, and drainage
can influence pest populations.
 There are plant pests such as grubs, mole crickets
and nematodes that can be reduced by flooding.
 However, some crop pests, for example rice whorl
maggot, may also be reduced by drainage.
k. Destruction of crop residue, rouging and
trimming
 For example, cotton farmers are required to destroy

their crop residue to reduce population of cotton
pink bollworm, cotton flower weevil and other pest
the following season.
 Crop residues should not be burned.
 Crop residues may be placed in a compost pit to be
burned into organic fertilizer.
 Rouging is the process of removing and destroying
unwanted plants especially when they are infected
with virus diseases.
 Tungro infected plants for example should be
rouged in the field.

 Thinning or pruning is a good cultural technique
not only to remove unwanted branches but also to
expose pests to direct sunlight.
 The first instar larvae of mealy bugs and scale
insects called crawlers are killed by direct exposure
to sunlight.
 Thinning and pruning will encourage good air
circulation and this will reduce the viability of some
plant pathogens if moisture is not available.
l. Proper harvesting, drying, storing, and
processing will reduce spoilage and damage of
storage pests.

 Most storage pests damage crops early in the field
and improper harvesting and processing will
enhance their infestation.
 For example, the mongo seed weevil lays its eggs on
the mature pods of mungbean in the field.
 If the beans are not properly processed immediately
the larva could get into the seeds and if not dried
well the larva will continue to develop in storage.
 But if dried well, the eggs, larvae and adults may
die.
m. Crop diversification, multiple cropping or
multi-storey farming is an ecological innovation
to utilize optimally all the natural resources in the
farm.

 Aside from providing diversity that would prevent
pest from concentrating on one crop, multi-storey
farming would utilize all spaces, nutrient and
sunlight.
 It would also encourage stable ecological
interactions among the crops and their respective
pest components but it would ensure economic
stability by providing a continuous cash flow for the
farmers.
n. Close-in-Time of Planting.
 This refers to the rule that the Philippine Cotton
Corporation required cotton farmers in Luzon 15

years ago to plant any compact area at one time.
 Or, if one farmer would start planting cotton,
everybody should follow shortly (not to exceed four
weeks).
 This would reduce the damage of the cotton flower
weevil, cotton bollworm and pink bollworm.
o. Light trapping.
 This technique would apply to pests
attracted to light, especially insects.

 There are many major pests of crops that
are attracted to ordinary light traps.
 Some of these are:
 mango leafhopper, Idioscopos elepsalis
 rice stem borer
 rice brown planthopper and green leafhopper
 The light trap can be placed over a fish pond.
 Catfish and “tilapia” may be raised on the fish pond

to eat the insects and other animals attracted to the
light.
 During May and June many species of termites and
other insect could serve as food for economic fish.
 The benefit that you will get from light trapping
will be doubled.
 The pests are consumed by the fish which in turn
provide the farmer’s protein requirement.
3. Biological control of pests


4. The Use of Resistant Varieties. This pest
regulatory method can be classified as a part of
biological control or cultural control
Pest resistant plants are those plants

possessing some relative amount of
heritable qualities or characteristics
(physical, physiological or biochemical)
which influence the ultimate degree of
damage done by pests.
 
1. Preference or non-preference.
 The crop plant can be less preferred for
oviposition, feeding, or shelter by the pest due to
its physical characteristics such as the presence of
hairs, roughness or smoothness, odor, color, or
absence of parts used for oviposition.
2. Antibiosis.

 This mechanism of resistance is due to the
absence or presence of biochemical substances
in the plants that would affect the growth,
reproduction and survival of pests.
 The ultimate effect of plants with antibiosis is
death of the pests.
3. Tolerance.
 This is the most ideal mechanism of
resistance.

 Tolerance refers to the ability of the plant to
withstand high pest population without yield
reduction.
 This is ideal because the plant does not have
any effect on the pest biology and therefore
have no negative effects on the natural
enemies.
 Plants that are tolerant to pest damage can be
used together with other methods of
regulating pest populations.


Resistant (tolerant) varieties are compatible with
any other pest regulatory methods;
 It is very economical to produce a pest resistant
variety, would require one breeder and one pest
management specialist;
 High economic returns (1:300 compared to the use
of chemical pesticides 1:4);
 The use of resistant varieties is appropriate for small
scale planting;
 It can easily be used in isolated areas where other

pest control technologies are not known;
 The development of pest resistant varieties
would work well on crops with low yield
potential and low margin profit; and
 Utilizing pest resistant crop would reduce crop
protection expenses and help conserve our dollar
reserves.


Some pests can adapt to non-preferred plants
when there are no other choice;
 Crops with high antibiosis type of mechanism
can enhance the development of biotypes or
races;
 Most pest resistant traits are incompatible
with high yield of good eating quality (a
resistant plant to one pest can be susceptible
to other pests);
 
 It takes a long time to develop and would require
close cooperation among agronomists, breeders,
and crop protection specialists; and
 Pseudoresistance or false resistance could either be
due to escape (when there are no enough pest
population), evasion (when the pest comes at the
time when the plants are not susceptible), or
induction (when the plants would show resistant
traits due to the presence of chemicals in the soil
that mark the expression of resistance).
The breeding of pests that are susceptible to
pesticides and their natural enemies that are
resistant to pesticides is a form of genetic
control. 
The traditional genetic methods are breeding
hybrid pests that, when released to the field,
would produce sterile adults, physically
defective offspring or that would result in the
death of the pests.
There are many other potential methods of
regulating pests such as the use of attractants
and repellents, sounds, and electronics in pest
communications.
