MODULE-2

HAZARDS
TO
FOOD SAFETY
 HAZARDS TO FOOD
SAFETY
Learning objectives
At the end of the module, the students should have:
• Classified types of food hazards and give example of each
• Defined the temperature danger zone and its implication
• Differentiated Contamination and cross contamination
• Identified groups susceptible to foodborne illness
• Identified and described factors affecting foodborne illness.
FOODBORNE HAZARDS

A foodborne hazards refers to a biological, chemical or physical hazard that

can cause illness or injury when consumed along with the food.

BIOLOGICAL HAZARSDS
Include bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi. These organisms are very small
and can only be seen with the aid of a microscope. Many of these organisms
occur naturally in the environment where foods are grown. Most are destroyed
by adequate cooking, and numbers are kept to a minimum by proper cooling
during product distribution and storage.
BACTERIA
-Are the most common hazards on food and is classified as either spoilage or pathogenic.
SPOILAGE BACTERIA
-Break down foods so that they look, taste, and smell bad, therefore reducing the quality of
food or it may have to be thrown away.
PATHOGENIC BACTERIA
-Are disease- causing microorganisms that can make people ill if the toxins are consumed with
food. In order to multiply, bacteria need food, acid, temperature, time, oxygen, and moisture.
VIRUSES
-Viruses are much smaller than bacteria, and they require a living host (human/animal) in
which to grow and reproduce. Viruses do not multiply in foods. However, a susceptible person
need to consume only a few viral particles in order to experience an infection. Viruses are
usually transferred from one food to another, from a food worker to a food, or from a
contemned water supply to a food. The key to controlling the spread of foodborne virus is
proper handwashing.
PARASITES
-Parasites are biological hazards which are small microscopic creatures that need to live on or
inside living host.
CHEMICAL HAZARDS
Are toxic subtances that may occur naturally or maybe added during
the processing of food. Chemical contaminants include chemicals, cleaning
compounds, heavy metals, cleaning compounds, food additives, and food
allergens. Harmful chemicals should never be placed near food items.

PHYSICAL HAZARDS
-Are hard or soft foreign objects in food that can cause illness and
injury. They include items such as fragments of glass, metal, unfrilled
toothpicks, jewelries, human hair, and etc. these hazards result from
accidental contamination and poor food-handling practices that can occur
at many points in the food chain from the source to the consumer.
 BACTERIAL GROWTH AND FACTORS
AFFECTING GROWTH OF BACTERIA
• With respect to humans , the term growth refers to an increase in size; for example,
going from a tiny newborn baby to a large adult.
• Although bacteria do increase in size before cell division, bacterial growth refers to
an increase in the number of organisms rather than an increase in their size.
• Bacterial growth can be defined as an orderly increase of all the chemical
components of the cell.
• Cell multiplication is a consequence of growth that leads to an increase in the
number of bacteria making up a population or culture.
• Most bacteria divide by binary fission in which the bacteria undergo cell divition to
produce two daughter cells identical to the parent cell.
• Bacterial growth can be equated to cell number: one bacterium divides into two,
these two produce four, and then eight and so on.
• The growth rate of a bacterium is measured by measuring the change in
bacterial number per unit time.
• Generation time is the time required for a bacterium to give rise to two
daughter cells under optimum conditions.
• The generation time for most of the pathogenic bacteria, such as E. coli, is
about 20 minutes.
• The generation time longer ( i.e., 20 hours ) for Mycobacterium
tuberculosis and longest ( i.e., 20 days ) for M. lelprae.
• A bacterium replicates and multiplies rapidly producing millions of cells
within 24 hours.
 FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH OF BACTERIA

The growth of microorganisms in the body, in nature, or in the

laboratory is greatly influenced by temperature pH, moisture content,
available nutrients, and the characteristics of other organisms present.

Oxygen
- Bacteria on the basis of their oxygen requirements can be classified
broadly into aerobic and anaerobic bacteria.
• Aerobic bacteria
-They require oxygen for their growth. They may be:
• Obligates aerobes
- Which can grow only in the presence of oxygen ( e.g., aeruginosa ).
• Facultative aerobes
- Which are ordinary aerobes but can also grow without oxygen ( e.g., E coli ).
Most of the pathogenic bacteria are facultative aerobes.
• Microaerophilic bacteria
- Those bacteria than can grow in the presence of low oxygen and in the
presence of low ( 4% ) concentration of carbon dioxide ( e.g., Campylobacter
jejuni ).
• Some fermentative organisms ( e.g., Lactobacillus plantarum ) are
aerotolerant but do not contain the enzyme catalase or superoxide
dismutase. Oxygen is not reduced, and therefore hydrogen peroxide ( H2O2 )
and nascent oxygen ( O2 ) Atre not produced.
Anaerobic bacteria:

• Obligate anaerobes are the bacteria that can grow only in the absence
of oxygen
( e.g., Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium tetani, etc ).

• These bacteria lack superoxide dismutase and catalase; hence oxygen is

lethal to these organisms.
CARBON DIOXIDE
• The organisms that require higher amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) fortheir growth are called capnophilic
bacteria.
• They grow well in the presence of 5-10% CO2 and 15% O2.
• In candle jar, 3% CO2 can be achieved.
• Examples of such bacteria include H. influenzae, Brucella abortus, etc.
TEMPARATURE
The optimum temperature for most of the pathogenic bacteria is 37°C. The optimal temperature, however, is
variable; depending on their temperature range, growth of bacteria is grouped as follows:
• Psychrophiles: These bacteria are cold loving microbes that grow within a temperature range of 0-20° Most of
soil and water saprophytes belong to this group.
• Mesophiles: These are moderate temperature loving microbes that grow between 25°C and 40° Most of
pathogenic bacteria belong to this group..
• Thermophiles: These are heat loving microbes. They can grow at a high temperature range of 55-80° B.
stearothermophilus is an example,
PH
• Most pathogenic bacteria grow between pH 7.2 and 7.6.
• Very few bacteria, such as lactobacilli, can grow at acidic pH below 4.0.
• Many food items, such as pickles and cheese, are prevented from spoilage by acids produced during
fermentation.
• V. cholerae is an example of the bacteria that can grow at alkaline (8.2-8.9) ph.
Light
Depending on the source of energy bacteria make use of, they may beclassified as
• Phototrophs (Bacteria deriving energy from sunlight)
• Chemotrophs (Bacteria deriving energy from chemical sources)

Osmotic pressure
• Microbes obtain almost all their nutrients in solution from surrounding water.
• Hence factors such as osmotic pressure and salt concentration of the solution affect the growth of
bacteria.
• Bacteria by virtue of mechanical strength of their cell wall are able to withstand a wide range of
external osmotic variations.
• Sudden exposure of bacteria to hypertonic solution may cause osmotic withdrawal of water, leading
to osmotic shrinkage of the protoplasm (plasmolysis).
• On the other hand, sudden transfer of bacteria from concentrated solution of distilled water may
cause excessive imbibition of water leading to swelling and bursting oof cell (plasmotysis).
BACTERIAL GROWTH IN FOOD
For bacteria to survive in food, all it needs is moisture, heat, and oxygen. The following
temperature danger zone is the most ideal environment to get all three. When the environment is
right, bacteria will multiply very quickly.
Using an example from the CSFP program, bacteria can double their amounts at the following
temperatures:
• +100°F: Every 15 minutes
• +50°F: Every 15 hours
• +36°F: Every 15 days
• 0°F: Most bacteria are dormant
How to Reduce Risk of Harmful
Avoiding time-temperature abuse and keeping foods out of the temperature danger zone at a
food service reduces the risk of costumers contracting a foodborne illness.
Temperature danger zone
Chefs and kitchen staff know the temperatures that food should be at the kill bacteria. How
ever, it is equally important to remember the temperatures where foods are susceptible to rapid
bacterial growth. This is when they enter the temperature danger zone, ”which is anywhere between
70°F and 125°F.
Time-Temperature Abuse
Foods reach the temperature danger zone when they are left too long within that temperature range.
This is known as "time-temperature abuse." A leading cause of foodborne illness is time and temperature abuse
of (food requiring time and temperature control for safety) foods. Foods are time and temperature abused any
time they're in the temperature danger zone, 41 to 140 degrees F. This occurs when food is:
• Not cooked to the recommended minimum internal temperature.
• Not held at the proper temperature.
• Not cooled or reheated properly.

DANGER ZONE
HOW TO KEEP FOOD SAFE
BETWEEN +41°F to +135°F

Temperature danger zone: 41 to 140 F.

The longer food is in the temperature danger zone, the more time pathogens have to grow. The goal is
to reduce the amount of time TCS food spends in the temperature danger zone. If food is held in this range for
four or more hours, you must throw it out. It's better to check temps every two hours and take corrective action
when needed.
 Time and temperature
Do you get confused over all the specific time and temperature requirements? All the following times and
temps are included

Cold holding-41 For less

Cold food must be maintained at 41 F or less.

Cooking temperatures
The following MUST be cooked to listed internal temperatures nd times:

145 F or above for 15 seconds

• Eggs for immediate service.
• Fish (except as otherwise required).
• Meat (except as otherwise required).
• Commercially raised game animals (except as otherwise required).

155 F or above for 15 seconds, or150 F or above for one minute, or 145 F or above for three minutes. Chopped
or ground meat. . Chopped or ground fish.Chopped or ground commercially raised game animals..
Pork.Injected meats,Eggs cooked for hot holding.165 F or above for 15 seconds.Poultry, Stuffed food
products.Stuffing containing fish, meat, poultry or wild game animals.Microwave cooking to 165 FTime and
temperature control for safety foods cooked in a microwave must be cooked to 165 F. The product must be
covered, and rotated or stirred during the cooking process. After cooking, allow two minutes stand time before
serving.Hot holding temperatures at 140 F or above Hot food must be maintained at 140 F or above.
155 F or above for 15 seconds, or
150 F or above for one minute, or
145 F or above for three minutes.
• Chopped or ground meat.
• Chopped or ground fish.
• Chopped or ground commercially raised game animals..
• Pork.
• Injected meats,
• Eggs cooked for hot holding.

165 F or above for 15 seconds.

• Poultry.
• Stuffed food products.
• Stuffing containing fish,
• Meat, poultry or wild game animals.
Microwave cooking to 165 F
Time and temperature control for safety foods cooked in a microwave must be cooked to 165 F. The product
must be covered, and rotated or stirred during the cooking process. After cooking, allow two minutes stand
time before serving.
Hot holding temperatures at 140 F or above
Hot food must be maintained at 140 F or above.
Cool foods as quick as possible
Foods must be cooled from 140 to 70 F within 2 hours and from 70 to 41 F within an additional 4 hours. The
goal is to cool foods as quickly as possible.
Reheat foods to 165 F for 15 seconds
Food that is reheated must reach a minimum internal temperature of at least 165 F for 15 seconds. Reheating
must be done rapidly and the minimum temperature must be reached within two hours. Steam tables. warmers, or
similar equipment do not heat food quickly enough and must not be used for reheating food.

3 CONTAMINATION AND CROSS-CONTAMINATION

What Is Food Contamination?

Have you ever been eating and had the unfortunate experience of finding a hair in your food? Or perhaps you
have found some bugs in your lettuce? These are both examples of food contamination. Food contamination is a severe
public health problem around the world, resulting in foodborne diseases that affect human beings every year (Microbial
Contamination and Food Degradation , 2018)
Food contamination is anything in food that reduces the safety or quality and is not supposed to be there.
Food may be contaminated intentionally or accidentally. As a consumer, we never want to see our food to be
contaminated but often the contamination we can see doesn't actually harm us, it is more often the unseen
contamination that is most harmful. Most examples of food contamination are pretty straight forward. They will either
harm the consumer, or they will harm to quality of the product. Yet there are currently some controversial issues that
some people consider as food contamination and should be indicated on the label.
Biological contamination is when
Bacteria or other harmful microorganisms contaminate food; it is a common
cause of food poisoning and food spoilage. Food poisoning can happen when
disease-causing bacteria or other germs, also called 'pathogens', spread to food
and are consumed. Bacteria are small microorganisms that split and multiply very
quickly. In conditions ideal for bacterial growth, one single- cell bacteria can
become two million in just seven hours. Certain types of bacteria also produce
bacterial toxins in the process of multiplying and producing waste. Bacterial toxins
can be very dangerous in fact, botulinum, the bacterial toxin that causes botulism,
is the most potent natural poison known. When high-risk foods are left in the
Temperature Danger Zone (5ºC-60°C) for too long, Food Handlers provide the other
conditions bacteria need to grow-time and the right temperature. A sick food
worker needs not to report to work and handle food.
 CONTAMINATED
Chemical contamination occurs when chemicals get into food. Common sources of chemical contamination in a
commercial kitchen include:
• Kitchen cleaning agents: Never keep food stored in the same place as your cleaning chemicals, and always use
cleaning products designed especially for kitchen use..
• Unwashed fruits and vegetables: Pesticides and fungicides on fruits and vegetables can be harmful if ingested,
so it's important to properly wash all fruits and vegetables before preparing them.
• Food containers made from non-safe plastics: Single-use items like. plastic containers are not designed to be
reused again and again. Always store food in containers that are specially designed for reuse..
• Pest control products: Pest control products are extremely hazardous. Always store these products away from
food items and never use these products in areas where food is being prepared.
• Kitchen equipment: Equipment with moving parts, such as slicers and mixers, may need regular oiling. Always
use food-safe oil to prevent chemical residues from contaminating food.
Physical contamination happens when physical objects enter food. Common sources of physical contamination
include:
• Hair: Always wear hair neatly tied back and wear a hairnet if possible.
• Glass or metal: Cracked or broken crockery and utensils should be thrown away, as well as any food that might
have come into contact with it..
• Pests: Pests-such as mice, rats and cockroaches-leave droppings (urine, saliva, fur, faeces) that can contaminate
food. Pests themselves can also make their way into food
• Jewellery: it is not recommended to wear jewellery when handling food. In some regions, it may be restricted by local
laws or regulations.
• Dirt: Because dirt is so small, it’s easy not to notice it. Dirt often gets into food via unwashed food and vegetables.
• Fingernails: Always keep nails short and clean to prevent contamination. Avoid wearing fake nails as these can easily
fall off and contaminate food.

In a food setting, cross-contamination refers to the transfer of contaminants from a surface, object or person too food.
This can happen in many different ways. Common causes of cross-contamination include:
• Clothing: Dirty clothes can transport bacteria from one place to another. If possible, clothing should be replaced when
moving from one work area to another. You should also thoroughly wash your face and hands. This is especially
important when working with high-risk food or when preparing allergen-free meals.
• Utensils: Different utensils should be used to prepare different types of food For example, you should never use the
same chopping board or knife to prepare raw meat and ready-to-eat foods.
• Food Handlers: Coughing,sneezing or even touching your face or hair before handling food can cause cross-
contamination.washing hands regularly when handling food is essential.
• Pests:Flies ,cockcroaches,mice and rats carry harmful bacteria,which they can transport from one place to
another.Pests control is vitally important in the workplace when it comes to preventing cross-contamination.
• Raw food storage:Cross-contamination frequently occurs when raw food comes into contact with cooked or ready-to-
eat food.If this happens,its fairs to assume the cooked or ready-to-eat food has become contaminated.Raw food should
be always covered and stored below ready-to-eat food in the refrigerator to prevent this type of contamination.
• Watse control:Garbage should be stored and sealed correctly to prevent cross-contamination.If should
always be stored away from other items in the kitchen to ensure it never comems into contacts with food
during preparation.Regular cleaning and sanitizing of waste bins should also carried out to minimize the
risk of pest infestation.
• Cross –contamination: Cross contamination occurs when a bacteria or virus is unintentionally transferred
from one food product to another,making the food unsafe.The key mark of distinction is that cross-
contamination generally refers to food contamination,not food allergens.A couple examples: you cut raw
chicken on a cutting board before you put it on the grill.You then cut peppers, therefore posing a risk for
bacteria.Or say you purchase a cantaloupe that unknowingly has listeria.The knife used to dice up the
melon is now a vehicle for cross-contamination.Unlike cross-contact, properly cooking contaminated foods
generally can eliminate the food-borne offender.Is it all making sense now?In short,when referring to food
allergens,use cross-contamination.Easy peasy!
• The best way to prevent food contamination from happening in a food business is trough food safety
training and education. Food Handlers must be trained in fundamental food safety concepts and practical
skills,such as:
• Safe cooking temperatures
• Proper storage and preparation of high-risk foods(also called ‘potentially hazardous foods”)effective
cleaning and sanitizing techniques the importance of personal hygiene and their legal responsibilities with
regards to food safety
• Have you ever had FOODBORNE ILLNESS? Did you become nauseated, diarrhea and vomiting? It could be
foodborne illness because the symptoms are very similar to those associated with flu.
4 PERSONS HIGHLY SUSCEPTIBLE TO
FOOD BORNE ILLNESS
Anyone can get food poisoning, but certain groups of people are more likely to get sick and to have a more
serious illness. Their bodies’ ability to fight germs and sickness is not as effective for a variety of reasons.These
groups of people are:
Adults Aged 65 and Older: have a higher risk because as people age, their immune systems and organs don’t
recognize and get rid of harmful germs as well as they once did. Nearly half of people aged 65 and older who
have a lab-confirmed foodborne illness
from Salmonella, Campylobacter, Listeria or E. coli are hospitalized.
Children Younger Than 5 Years: have immune systems that are still developing, so isn’t as strong. Food
poisoning can be particularly dangerous for diarrhea and dehydration. Children younger than 5 are three times
more likely to be hospitalized if they get a Salmonella infection. And kidney failure strikes 1 out of 7 children
under age 5 who are diagnosed with E. coli O157 infection.
People with Weakened Immune Systems: due to diabetes, liver or kidney disease, alcoholism, and HIV/AIDS;
or receiving chemotherapy or radiation therapy connot fight germs and sickness as effectively. For example,
people on dialysis are 50 times more likely to get a Listeria infection.
Pregnant Women: are more likely than other people to get sick from certain germs. For example, pregnant
women are 10 times more likely to get a Listeria infection.
5 FACTORS AFFECTING FOODBORNE
ILLNESS
General symptoms of foodborne illness usually include one or more of the following:

Headache abdominal pain

Nausea diarrhea
Vomiting fatigue
Dehydration fever

When a living, disease-causing microorganism is eaten along with a food, it can cause a
foodborne infection. After ingestion, the organism burrows into the lining of the victim’s
digestive tract and begins to grow in number. Sometimes, the microbes may spread to
other parts of the body through the bloodstream. Bacteria, viruses, and parasites are
examples of microorganism that can cause infection.
• Infection Caused by eating food that contains living disease-causing
microorganism.

Caused by eating food that contains a harmful chemical or

• Intoxication toxin produced by bacteria or other source

May also occur when an individual consumes food that

contains man-made chemicals such as cleaning agents or
pesticides.

Caused by eating a food that contains harmful microorganism

• Toxin-mediated infection that will produce a toxin once inside the body. Once the
organism is inside the human body, it produces a toxin that
causes the illness.
There are types of foods that have the ability to support the rapid and
progressive growth of infectious and toxin-producing microorganisms.
These are called

Potentially Hazardous Foods (PHF): which are high in protein and

carbohydrates. Red meat,poultry, raw eggs, beans, and potatoes are
common examples. These food items have been associated with most
foodborne disease outbreak therefore require special handling and
storage to control and prevent bacterial growth.

Ready-to-eat: food are also one associated with foodborne illness. These
are food items that are edible even without washing, cooking, or
additional preparation. It include raw or processed product that can be
eaten immediately such as fruit and vegetable cuts, salads, hotdogs, etc.
that becomes contaminated if not handled properly.
SAFETY POINT
When preparing and
handling food,you
should: keep ready-
to-eat food completely
separate from raw meat
poultry,fish eggs and
unwashed vegetables
Make sure work surfaces,
chopping boards, knives etc.
are clean (and disinfected if you
have prepared raw food)
WHY? HOW DO YOU DO THIS?
This protects food List the types of ready-to-eat
from harmful bacteria food you use and how you use
and allergens. This is and how you handle them:
especially important
for ready-to-eat food
because it will not be
cooked or reheated before serving. It also
helps keep allergens from spreading.