Instrument Sharing

Taylor-Johnson Temperament Analysis

(T-JTA)

Presented By: Group 7

Lim May Lee （ MHP231170 ）
Suganniya A/P SEKARAN (MHP222023)

MHPE 1133-01 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING AND MEASUREMENT

Assoc. Prof. Dr Azlina Binti Mohd Kosnin
23 May 2024
 Psychological Testing Instrument - T-JTA

01 Introduction 02 History and Development

03 Reliablity And Validity 04 Administration

05 Components 06 Interpretation

07 Limitation 08 Conclusion
WHAT IS T-JTA? 01. Introduction
The Taylor-Johnson Temperament Analysis(T-JTA)
• The T-JTA is a widely used personality assessment tool. It
measures various aspects of an individual’s temperament.

• It is a personality inventory used extensively for :-

>>>>>Assess Individual and Relationship adjustment

>>>>>Determine Therapeutic Goals
>>>>>Evaluate Progress and Change
>>>>>Use Directly with Clients in Counseling
 02. History and Background

History & Background

Developed By Published in Latest Edition
Roswell H.Johnson, Ph.D,
Originally published in 1966
Director of the America 8th Edition T-JTA
first published, TJTA has
Institute of Family Relations updated on 2012
experiences widespread use
in Los Angeles
by psychiatrists and
This test was published on
counselors
year 1941
 Reliability 03. Reliability and Validity

• Over 50 years of historical data and statistical research.

• The reliability of the nine bipolar scale scores has been estimated with test-retest
correlation, coefficients, with split half correlations, and with Hoyt’s analysis of
variance approach as presented by B.j.Winer.

• The results of this study indicate a high correlation with MMPI and 16-PF

Reference:
C. Hoyt,”The Reliability Obtained by Analysis of Variance,” Psychometrika,6:153-60,1941
B.J.Winer,Statistical Principles in Experimental Design, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Vo.,1962
RELIABILITY 03. Reliability and Validity

• Internal Consistency: With Cronbach's alpha coefficients typically reported in the

range of 0.70 to 0.90 for different scales. This indicates that the items within each scale
are generally measuring the same underlying trait. Cattell, R. B., & Mead, A. D.

• Test-Retest Reliability: Studies have shown that the TJTA has satisfactory test-retest
reliability, with correlations often above 0.70 over periods of several weeks to a few
months. Taylor, R., & Morrison, M.

REFERENCES:-
Cattell, R. B., & Mead, A. D. (2008). "The Taylor-Johnson Temperament Analysis: A Reliability Study
."Taylor, R., & Morrison, M. (1996). "Longitudinal Analysis of TJTA Scores: A Test-Retest Study."
Validity Analysis Report 03. Reliability and Validity

Analysis for Iranian couples, determination of reliability and validity as well as providing
quantitative and qualitative norms. The statistical sample includes candidates, the threshold
marriages and couples who are living together under three years, respectively. The statistical
sample consisted of 420 couples that among couples who were eligible for this study were
selected randomly. findings we can conclude that the Taylor-Johnson Temperament Analysis
is a valid tool for premarital counseling. Vahdani, F., & Bahari, F. (2016)

Conclusion: The finding of the study suggest that “Taylor-Johnson temperament analysis” is a
reliable and efficient instrument for pre-marital counseling and can determine the compatibility
and incompatibility of the couples.
Reference:
Vahdani, F., & Bahari, F. (2016). The Reliability and Validity of the Taylor-Johnson Temperament Analysis. Journal of
Psychological Assessment, 23(2), 145-157.
 04. Administration
How is it administrated?
• T-JTA can administered by online at www.tjta-online.com

• The T-JTA is an untimed test that takes approximately 30-45 minutes to

administer. Total 180 questions to answer which equally divided among nine
bipolar traits.

• Administrated in the following languages :-

> English, Spanish, French, German, Chinese, Korean, Indonesian

• Standardized for use with adolescents through senior adults.

• Simplified vocabulary and format are designed appropriate for use of adolescents.
 04. Administration

• Adolescents Norms are applied with those ages 11-17, It is advisable to obtain
parental consent.

• Once the test is done, the results are instantly available for download in PDF
format from your account.

• Report will be interpretated by trained practitioners or counsellors.

• Scoring , Profiling, Interpretation Reports, Traits Suggestion, Answer sheets for

self and Criss-Cross testing are returned to the T-JTA user via internet.
 Testing Questions 5. Components

• 3 print editions of T-JTA questions can be select:-

> Regular, Criss-Cross, Secondary

Regular Edition Questions (Non-Criss-Cross)

Direct Question Format
All age groups.( Min 8 grade reading level )

Regular Edition Questions (Criss-Cross)

Questions constructed with a blank space for name insertion (for answer the questions as
they apply to himself or herself, or as they apply to someone else, such as spouse, parent or
child.( Min 8 grade reading level )

Secondary Edition Questions

Direct Question Format , used for adolescents or adults who have lower reading level ( Min
5 grade reading level )
 5. Components
EXAMPLES OF T-JTA
QUESTIONS

⚫Do you take an active part in community affairs? Yes

⚫Do you worry a great deal about health? Yes

⚫Do you enjoy taking chances? Mid

⚫Do you have interest in other people’s emotional problems? Yes

What is a T-JTA Criss-Cross 5. Components

• The TJTA questions are answer twice, first about oneself and then about another person

• Self-perception and Cross perception are plotted together on same TJTA Profile

• Differences in perception are clearly revealed

• Shows how well partners know each other

 5. Components
Answer Sheets
• Displayed virtually online, capture one of three possible responses to
each T-JTA item:
“Decidedly yes” or “Mostly yes” / MID- “Undecided” / “Decidedly
no” or “Mostly no”

(“ Undecided“ termed a MID, This is unique to TJTA to avoid an absolute

yes-no or true-false limitation.)
 Profiles 5. Components

• Scores plotted on Regular Shaded (Percentile ) Profile.

• Contain shaded zone to assist in evaluating the scores results

• 4 shaded zones, ranging from Dark, lighter, lightest and white, to evaluating the
plotted scores.
> Dark - Excellent ; Lighter - Acceptable,
Lightest - Improvement Desirable ; White - Improvement Needed

The shaded zones become progressively lighter, from dark to white, lesser and lesser
adjustment is indicated.
 Example of
Percentile Profiles
 5. Components
Report Sheet and Report Booklets

• The Report Sheet is one- page summary sheet that lists T-JTA Traits that
respondent has indicated the area of strength, or area that need attention.

• The Report Booklet is 8 pages, content the introduction of T-JTA, profiles,

validity scales and brief descriptions of the 9 bipolar traits categories.
 Color in Scoring and Profiling 5. Components

• RED Color used for male respondents or in Criss-Cross test answer by

males

• BLUE Color used for female respondents or In Criss-Cross test answer

by females
HOW IS IT INTERPRETATE?
06. Interpretation

Nine Personality Traits

Supplemental Scales

Traits Patterns

Meaning Of Mids

Attitude Scale
 06. Interpretation
HOW IS IT INTERPRETATE?

• Nine personality traits are measured and each is paired with its opposite, as
shown on the T-JTA shaded profiles.

• Each scale represents a unique aspect of personality.

• The nine personality traits measured by the T-JTA are significant in

personal adjustment and in interpersonal relationships.
 06. Interpretation
HOW IS IT INTERPRETATE?

• The definitions printed on the profiles have been provided to assist the
counsellor in explaining the meaning of the traits measured.

• The shadings on the Shaded Profiles have been designed to serve as a

guide to evaluating the scores obtained and to aid in interpreting the T-JTA
results to the respondent.
 Scoring
Total Mid Count--The answers to the test questions that are placed in the middle (Mid) column
represent undecided responses.
A Total Mid Count of 15 is average for an adult. A Total Mid Count of 20 is average for an
adolescent. If the Total Mid count exceeds 30 for an adult, or 40 for an adolescent, there is
likely some impact on test validity, and the results may not be a wholly accurate representation
of the person being described.

Attitude Scale Sten Score--The Attitude Scale is a measure of test-taking bias or

objectivity

It is intended to show how your attitudes toward problems, or life in general, may have
influenced the way you answered the T-JTA questions. The Attitude Scale Sten Score will fall
into one of three ranges: Low (Stens 1, 2, 3), Neutral (Stens 4, 5, 6, 7) and High (Stens 8, 9, 10)
The T-JTA measure 9 common 06. Interpretation
personality traits.

Trait A: Nervous ↔ Composed Trait F:

Subjective ↔ Objective

Trait B: Depressive ↔ Lighthearted Trait G

Dominant ↔ Submissive

Trait C: Active-Social ↔ Quiet Trait H: Hostile ↔ Tolerant

Expressive-
Trait D: Traits I:
Responsive ↔ Inhibited Self-Disciplined
Trait I
↔ Impulsive
Trait E: Sympathetic ↔ Indifferent
 Personality Traits 06. Interpretation

• A personality “trait” is defined as a collection of

behaviors, attitudes, and feelings, sufficiently
interrelated as to be used and measured as a unit.
• Personality test results represent a general
measure of an individual’s adjustment at a given
point in time; successive tests may reflect
personal growth and change.
Trait A : Nervous vs Composed

Nervous

Tense, High-strung, Apprehensive

Composed

Calm, Relaxed, Tranquil

 Trait A : Nervous vs Composed

What it Measures ？ What it Measures

External Factors Internal Pressure

• Can come from external forces • Reacting to internal pressures
• It may be observable • Persistent or chronic state of tension, not related
• Nervous symptoms are present to any circumstances. A High
• May be temporary or situational response Nervous
• Tendency to worry Score
to some immediate stressful • Suggests unresolved conflict Internal
circumstances A High
Nervous • High Nervous often associated with high
Score
External Depressive
• High Nervous + Depressive = Anxiety
Trait Ｂ : Depressive vs. Light-hearted

Depressive

Pessimistic, Discouraged, Dejected

Light-hearted

Happy, Cheerful, Optimistic

 Trait Ｂ : Depressive vs. Light-hearted

What It Measures Interpretive Considerations

• Feelings of apathy, despondency, pessimism
• Preoccupation with problems or misfortunes
• Emotional exhaustion; suicidal contemplation
• Feelings of not belonging or being unwanted
• Easily disheartened by criticism or
discouraged due to lack of self-
confidence
• Lowers personal, social, scholastic, and vocational
functioning
• May be related to a specific traumatic event or
personal crisis
• Suggests unresolved conflict
• Elevated Depressive and Nervous often found
together. Improvement in one tends to improve the
other.

A High
Depressive
Score
Indicates
 Trait Ｂ : Depressive vs. Light-hearted

Interpretive Considerations

• High Depressive is often found with High Nervous

and Subjective scores
• Depression affects one’s sense of well-being
CAUTION:
• Extremely high Depressive score and very low Self-
• Disciplined/Impulsive score
• Medical or psychiatric evaluation is advisable,
• especially with history of self-destructive tendencies
 Trait Ｃ : Active Social vs. Quiet

Active Social

Energetic, enthusiastic, socially involved

Quiet

Socially inactive, lethargic, withdrawn feeling,

attitude or behaviors
 Trait Ｃ : Active Social vs. Quiet

What It Measures
• A feeling of energy and vitality
• Briskness of movement
• Keeping “on the go”
• Enjoying new and diverse activities
• Participation in clubs
• Community or group activities
• An interest in people and in making new
• friends
• What It Measures
• A preference for being with people
 Trait Ｃ : Active Social vs. Quiet

High Socially Active Scores Low Socially Active vs.

Quiet Scores

• Suggests a tendency to withdraw

• Usually indicates the person likes to take an
socially and an inability to tolerate
active, participating role with others
activity
• Generally parallels good adjustment in other
• Suggests a preference for solitary
areas
activities
• Couples with opposite scores will often
need to make an adjustment in this area
• Look for correlation with other scales
 Trait Ｄ : Expressive Responsive
vs.
Inhibited

Expressive
Responsive
Spontaneous, affectionate and demonstrative

Inhibited

inability to express tender feelings, reserved,

 Trait Ｄ : Expressive Responsive vs. Inhibited

What A High Score Indicates What A Low Score Indicates

• Friendly and cordial • Have difficulty being friendly and
• Talkative, animated and enthusiastic responsive
• Expresses tenderness, sympathy and • Have difficulty expressing warmth and
pleasure affection
• Shows affection without embarrassment or • May feel embarrassment or
discomfort uncomfortable expressing feelings
• May be indicative of feelings of
personal inadequacy
Able to openly
demonstrate
Inability to express
and respond
tender feelings and
to feelings of
respond to feelings of
warmth and
warmth and affection from
affection
others
 Trait Ｄ : Expressive Responsive vs. Inhibited

Interpretive Considerations

• This scale measures the expression of emotion on an interpersonal or intimate

basis

• Relates to the affectional aspect of the relationship, helping to reveal the degree
of closeness
Trait Ｅ : Sympathetic vs. Indifferent

Sympathetic

Kind, understanding, compassionate

Indifferent

Lack of sympathetic, thoughtlessly

inconsiderate, overly strict
 Trait Ｅ : Sympathetic vs. Indifferent
What it measures
• Inner-feeling capacity for others.
• Ability to put yourself in other’s shoes
• Ability to listen sympathetically
• Ability to be tender with children and the
elderly
• Inclination to be forgiving/willing to
apologize
Interpretive Considerations
• Sympathy is a vital component of good
relationships.
• High Sympathetic indicates a desire to help
those in need.
• Very High Sympathetic may indicate
vulnerability and a tendency to be taken
advantage of
• Low Sympathetic may indicate a denial of
feelings or a
• self-protective withdrawal from emotional
involvement
Trait F : Subjective vs. Objective

Subjective

Emotional self-absorbed,illogical

Objective

Fair-minded,reasonable,logical
 Trait F : Subjective vs. Objective
What It Measures
• Ability to think and react clearly, logically
and judge accurately
• Overly sensitive, self-conscious, easily
embarrassed
• Misjudges the motives or behavior of
others, suspicious, holds grudges
• Overly introspective and may tend to
daydream
Interpretive Considerations
Objective
• People can reason without bias or
distortion, and thus tend to be effective
leaders.
Extremely Objective Scores
• May interfere with feeling-capacity and
negatively affect interpersonal
relationships
 Trait G: Dominant vs. Submissive

Dominant

Confident ,leadership, assertive, competitive

Submissive

Follower, overly reliant on others, easily

persuaded
 Trait G: Dominant vs. Submissive
What it measures

Very High Dominant

High Dominant:
• Suggests an individual who is overly
• positive indication of ego strength;
domineering and likely to arouse
self-assured, influential, competitive
resentment
and confident

Submissive
Low Dominant:
• Typically indicates a poor self-image
• Poor self-image; tends to be a follower,
• May represent deeply ingrained, cultural
self-doubting, insecure, unable to be
conditioning in certain communities
assertive
Trait H: Hostile vs. Tolerant

Hostile

Critical, argumentative, punitive

Tolerant

Accepting, patient, humane

 Trait H: Hostile vs. Tolerant
Interpretive Considerations

Hostile Tolerant

• Suggests a storage “closet” of anger • Deep respect for others

• Expressed directly or indirectly in • Freedom from racial & religious prejudice

procrastination, stubbornness,
impatience, complaining, etc. • Patient and lenient attitudes

• Disinclination to complain or criticize

Trait H: Hostile vs. Tolerant

High Hostile

• Superior and over-bearing attitude and manner

• Hostile attitudes and reactions to others

 Trait I : Self-disciplined vs. Impulsive

Self-disciplined

Controlled, methodical, persevering

Impulsive

Uncontrolled, disorganized, changeable

 Trait I : Self-disciplined vs. Impulsive

What it measures
• The inclination to be deliberate and to
• Indicates control over the emotions
set goals
• The ability to organize, plan, endure,
and behavior in
and persevere general
• Neatness, orderliness, a desire to keep • Suggests respect for authority and
things in place conformity to group
• Thinking before acting and exercising standards
good self-control
 Trait I : Self-disciplined vs. Impulsive
Interpretive Considerations
High Self-Disciplined
• May indicate emotional maturity
• Very High Self-Disciplined
• Suggests rigidity
• Lack of flexibility
• Lack of adaptability
Extremely High Self-Disciplined
• Suggests perfectionistic tendencies
• An inclination to make unrealistic demands
of others as well as of self.
Low Self-Disciplined/Impulsive
• Indicates poor self-control
• May indicate a tendency to act without
considering possible consequences.
• Difficult to control such habits as
substance abuse, excessive smoking,
eating, gambling, or other self
destructive behavior
• Therapeutic outlook may be poor
 06. Interpretation
T-JTA Supplemental Scales
Interpretive Reports generated by the T-JTA Online Scoring Service include 9 additional T-
JTA Supplemental Scales developed through continuing research. The scales are as follows:

• Overall Adjustment
• Emotional Stability
• Self-Esteem
• Alienating
• Interpersonal Effectiveness
• Outgoing/Gregarious
• Persuasive/Influential
Trait I
• Industrious/Persevering
• Consistency (validity scale)
 06. Interpretation
T-JTA Shaded Areas in Profile
• A guide for evaluating the scores
obtained.

• Consensus of clinical judgment and

experience of standardization
professionals regarding the
implications of the T-JTA scores

• More scores in darker shading means

better adjustment
Trait I

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 06. Interpretation
T-JTA Percentiles Profile

⚬ Respondent can compares to the

standardization sample.

⚬ Example 57% score indicates they

are more nervous than 57% of the
population.

Trait I

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 Interpretation of the 06. Interpretation
Attitude Scale Score 06. Interpretation

Attitude Scale score reveals a respondent’s

attitude
Attitude scale sten scores fall into three
ranges

• Low Scores: 1-3 ~ Critical of self

• Neutral Scores: 4-7 ~ Unbiased
• High Scores: 8-10 ~ Overly positive
Trait I
Attitude Scale Score 06. Interpretation

Stens 1, 2 and 3
• Respondent answered in a negative, self deprecating manner
• A low score often suggests deep concern about oneself
• Common of persons seeking marital counseling
Stens 4, 5, 6 and 7
• Suggests that a respondent answered in an open, unbiased manner

Stens 8, 9 and 10
• Respondent gave self-favoring answers, thereby
denying the existence of any faults or problems
• Commonly reflects a desire project a positive
self image. Trait I
• Common in premarital tests where respondents
are unaware of tend to deny problems
Interpretation of Mid Score 06. Interpretation
• Instruct respondents to avoid Mids
where possible.
• Tests with more than 30 Mids for
adults, 40 Mids for for adolescents
show lesser validity in results
• Look for areas where Mid stack up
• More than 5 Mids in one trait area
indicates uncertainty or apprehension

Trait I

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Interpretation of Mid Score 06. Interpretation

• Excessive Mids may indicate client did not read the

test instructions
• Excessive Mids may indicate lack of self-knowledge
or indecision, anxiety
• On a Criss-Cross, indicates a need for better
awareness of significant other
• Five or more Mids in one category = conflict
Trait I
 06. Interpretation
T-JTA Regular Sten Profile
For counsellors who prefer to use standard scores.

T-TJA results are converted to sten scores ranging

from 1 to 10 on an unshaded graph.

Sten Scores are interpreted as follows:

10 – extremely high 5 – average
9 – very high 4 – low average
8 – high 3 – low
7 – high average 2 – very low
6 – average 1 – extremely low
Trait I
Seven T-JTA Trait Patterns 06. Interpretation

1 Anxiety
The trait patterns may be found in varying degrees of
2 Withdrawal intensity. The most evident examples of the Anxiety
Pattern, withdrawal pattern, Hostile-Dominant pattern,
3 Emotionally Inhibited

4 Emotionally Repressed

5 Hostile-Dominant

6 Socially Effective

Trait I
7 Stress Syndrome
Anxiety Pattern

• Natural aspect of growth and change

• May be accompanied by low Attitude
• Fear of actual or perceived danger
• Chronic anxiety often associated with:
>>Personal insecurities
>>Feelings of inadequacy
• Extreme anxiety may require referral
Anxiety Pattern

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Withdrawal Pattern

• Withdrawal Pattern
• May be introverted, prefer less social activity
• Self-conscious, shy, restrained and inhibited.
• May have deep feelings of inadequacy + low self-esteem —
May be circumstantial or based upon environment
• May be receptive to increasing interpersonal involvement
Withdrawal Pattern

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 Emotionally Inhibited (Blocked) Pattern

• Warm inner feelings exist

• Find it difficult or is unable to reveal or share these

feelings with others

• Suggests emotional blocking. Feelings not expressed.

• Can be the cause of problems, or the result of problems

Emotionally Inhibited (Blocked) Pattern

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 Emotionally Repressed Pattern

• Emotional withdrawal
• Suppression out of fear of rejection or defensiveness
• Inner feelings do not exist nor are they expressed.
• Lack of childhood affection carries into adulthood
• Indicator of compatibility with regard to affection
Emotionally Repressed Pattern

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 Emotionally Inhibited
vs
Emotionally Repressed

• Inhibition vs. Repression - Expression vs. Feeling

• Can indicate marriage problems
• Can be either the cause or result of the problem
• Can manifest in sexual incompatibility or dysfunction
Dominant - Hostile Pattern

• Tends to have destructive effect on relationships

• Individuals are generally unpleasant and alienate people
• Dominance provides confidence for expressing hostility
• Low tolerance for points of view other than their own
Dominant - Hostile Pattern

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 Dominant-Hostile -Indifferent Pattern

• Lacks concern and consideration for others

• Unsentimental, suspicious, cynical, stern, arrogant,
impertinent....
• ....demanding, headstrong, rebellious, tyrannical
• Pattern is common in people with deep hurts
• Such individuals have a hard time trusting people

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Dominant-Hostile - Inhibited Pattern
• Difficulty expressing any warm, tender,
sympathetic feelings. They may also be:

• Unsentimental, cynical, unconcerned with

making friends

• Unforgiving, overly critical, unwilling to

accept blame

• Prone to attack contrary points of view,

demanding of attention, revenge-seeking

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Dominant-Hostile - Subjective Pattern

• Preoccupied with self at exclusion of others

• May take stands and offer arguments too

prejudiced or emotionally-biased

• Likely to express their feelings, however

distorted.

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Dominant-Hostile - Impulsive Pattern

• Lacks self - control

• Expresses anger without considering the

consequences

• May become depressive but must take

responsibility for behavior

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Dominant-Hostile / High Attitude

• Denial of weakness or problems

• Resists behavior change

• Tends to not accept blame

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Dependant - Hostile Pattern

• Suggests the individual depends on others for direction

• Prone to be antagonistic toward person being depended upon
• Common in the workplace – power differential
Dependant - Hostile Pattern

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Socially Effective Pattern

— Open, outgoing, and successful in social situations

— Inner-feeling capacity and the ability to openly

— Accepting and patient in attitude and behavior

— If Low Active-Social may relate well in intimate, one- to-one

Socially Effective Pattern

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Stress Syndrome Pattern

• Identifies Individuals who are experiencing:

• Acute states of anxiety
• Frequent problems because of an inability to cope with internal
or external stress factors.

Underlying problems that can be expressed by stress-related

symptoms or behavioral manifestations that may be detrimental
to self or others

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 07. Strengths & Limitation

Strengths

1. Instant results - No turnaround time.

2. Comprehensive Profiling- Provides a detailed profile

3. Easy to Use – straightforward to administer and interpret

4. Reliable and Detailed - Provide a detailed, reliable, and easy-to-interpret

analysis of an individual's temperament
 07. Strengths & Limitation
Limitation

1. Interpretation Requires Expertise: Proper interpretation of the

TJTA results requires a trained professional.

2. Availability and cost: Only authorized practitioners could offer this

assessment. There is a cost incurred.

3. Required basic reading ability, such as Regular Edition

Questions required a minimum eighth-grade reading level.
 06. Conclusion

T-JTA is viewed as a comprehensive tool for clinical and counseling professionals to

improve their practice and better serve their clients. This assessment has been in use for
more than 50 years and has continuously development. It is important to note that T-JTA is
not intended for diagnosing psychiatric conditions. Relying solely on T-JTA results for
critical decisions is not recommended. No doubt T-JTA is a valuable tool for career
development, team building, and personal growth, However understanding its limitations
and using it as part of a comprehensive assessment process is key to maximizing its
benefits.

*Important decisions should not be made based on this test alone…….

Copyright@ 2018 by Psychotherapy Publications, Inc.,

References:-
Vahdani, F., & Bahari, F. (2016). Standardization of Taylor-Johnson Temperament
Analysis for premarital counseling. Shenakht Journal of Psychology and Psychiatry,
3(1), 86-101.

Ｃ . Hoyt, “ Test Reliability Obtained by Analysis of Variance,” Psychometrika 6,

153-160(1941).

B. J. Winer, Statistical Principles in Experimental Design, New York: McGraw-Hill

Book Vo.,1962.

Psychotherapy Publication, Inc.,(2018), Taylor-Johnson Temperament Analysis

Manual, 7th Edition
T h a n k
yo u!