BJC 313

TELEVISION PRODUCTION
 WEEK 1
INTRODUCTION TO TELEVISION PRODUCTION

SUBTOPICS
 Definition of Television and Television production
o The meaning of television
o The concept of television production
 The artistic aspect of Television programme
production
DEFINITION OF TELEVISION AND TELEVISION
PRODUCTION
 Television is defined as an audio-visual medium. It blends
pictures with sound to produce a communication experience
exhibited on the screen.
 Television uses sound to explain the visuals presented on the
screen. It addresses the emotion and intellect in a remarkable
way (Owauamalam, 2007:238).
 Television uses the movement of images in a unique way or
pattern to express thought and feelings in an exciting and
appealing manner.
DEFINITION OF TELEVISION AND TELEVISION PRODUCTION
CONT.

 Television production is the process of developing a

television show from its early writing stage through
acquiring talent and a crew, securing a set or location,
shooting, editing, and preparing it for broadcast.
 Different types of shows have different production methods,
each geared towards efficiently creating the final product
and delivering it to an audience.
THE ARTISTIC ASPECT OF TELEVISION PROGRAMME
PRODUCTION
 Television production is regarded as a carefully balanced
compromise between artistic aspirations and hard
practicalities.
 There are certain things that seem to be not too important,
but without them, production would be marred. These are
artistic aspects of the programme.
 For example, the way you present your ideas, the camera,
arrange lighting and sound will give the subject a certain
amount of genuineness.
THE ARTISTIC ASPECT OF TELEVISION PROGRAMME
PRODUCTION CONT.

 Production could be primarily a matter of organisation,

this involves bringing together the right elements, such
as, the script, performers, setting, that is equipment and
the production crew, “and using cameras and
microphones to display the performance through
carefully selected shots.”
 WEEK 2
PHASES OF PRODUCTION

SUBTOPICS:
• Introduction
• Pre-production
• Production
• Post production
 INTRODUCTION
Regardless of whether you are part of the nontechnical or
technical personnel, or whether you work with a big
production team or by yourself, you will inevitably be
involved in one or all of the three production phases:
 Preproduction,
 Production,
 Postproduction.
PREPRODUCTION PHASE
 Preproduction includes all the preparations and activities
before you actually move into the studio or the field on the
first day of production. It usually happens in two stages.
 Stage 1 consists of all the activities necessary to transform
the basic idea into a workable concept or script.
 In stage 2 all the necessary production details, such as
location, crews, and equipment for a single-camera or
multicamera production, are worked out.
PRODUCTION PHASE
 As soon as you open the studio doors for rehearsal or a
video-recording session, or load a camcorder into the van
for a field shoot, you are in production.
 Except for rehearsals, production involves equipment and
normally a crew—people who operate the equipment.
 It includes all activities in which an event is video-recorded
or televised.
 POST-PRODUCTION PHASE
 The major activity of postproduction consists of video and
audio editing.
 It may also include color correction of video clips (so that the
red shirt of an actor looks the same from one shot to the next),
the selection of appropriate background music, and the
creation of special audio effects.
 When using a single camera film-style, which means that a
scene is built by recording one shot after another with only one
camera, the postproduction activities may take longer than the
actual production.
 WEEK 3
TELEVISION PRODUCTION MODELS

SUBTOPICS:
• Introduction
• Effect-to-cause model
• Medium requirements
• Process message shaping medium requirements
INTRODUCTION
 Like any other model, a production model is meant to help you
move from the original idea to the finished product as
efficiently as possible.
 It is designed to help you decide on the most effective
approach the first time around, evaluate each major
production step, and finish on time.
 Its function is similar to that of a road map: you don’t have to
follow it to get from here to there, but it makes finding your
way much easier.
 If you feel that it is restrictive and cramps your creativity or
style, don’t use it.
EFFECT-TO-CAUSE MODEL
 Like most other production models, the effect-to-cause model
starts with a basic idea, but instead of moving from the basic
idea directly to the production process, it jumps to the desired
communication effect on the target —the general programme
objective.
 This programme objective can be reached through a specific
message that, ideally, the viewer will actually receive,
internalize, or act on.
 MEDIUM REQUIREMENTS
 The advantage of this model is that the precise definition of the
process message and a specific angle will help the content and
production people work as a team and facilitate selecting the
necessary production personnel and equipment.
 By first carefully defining the desired effect on the audience,
you can then decide quite easily on the specific people you
need to do the job (content expert, writer, director, and crew),
on where to do the production most effectively (studio or
field), and on the necessary equipment (studio or field
cameras, types of mics, and so forth).
PROCESS MESSAGE SHAPING MEDIUM REQUIREMENTS
 Process message 1: The viewer should gain insight into some of
the major issues raised in the programme.
 Process message 2: The viewer should gain deeper insight into the
conscience and the feelings of the sources involved in the story or
programme.
 In Process Message Shaping Medium Requirements, the major
concern is on the result, i.e. what is the desired effect of the
communication to the audience?
 In the message, the angle should not be stated separately but
rather embedded in the defined process message. But would you
need a process message if you were to write a play? Of course not.
PROCESS MESSAGE SHAPING MEDIUM REQUIREMENTS
CONT.
 Even a nicely formulated process message would not help you
write a more effective drama.
 Any dramatic presentation has its own internal structure that does
not benefit from stating its desired effect on the audience.
 It is more important to think about character development and
conflict than defining whether you want the audience to cry or
laugh.
 The effect-to-cause model facilitates the production approach. It
moves from the basic idea to the process message (the desired
effect on the viewer) and from there to the medium requirements
(content, people, and equipment) necessary to actually cause the
process message. The closer the defined and actual process
messages match, the more successful the program.
 WEEK 4
TELEVISION PRODUCTION PERSONNEL

SUBTOPICS:
• Introduction
• Nontechnical Production Personnel
• Technical Personnel
• News Production Personnel
INTRODUCTION
 Even the most sophisticated television production
equipment and computer interfaces will not replace you in
the television production process; you and those working
with you still reign supreme—at least so far.

 The equipment cannot make ethical and aesthetic judgments

for you; it cannot tell you exactly which part of the event to
select and how to present it for optimal communication.
NON TECHNICAL PRODUCTION PERSONNEL
 The nontechnical production personnel are generally involved
in translating a script or an event into effective television
images.
 They are also called above-the-line personnel because they
fall under a different budget category from the technical crew,
who are called below-the-line personnel.
 The above-and below-the-line distinction is anything but
absolute or even uniform, however, and it changes depending
on the crewmembers’ union affiliations and the budgetary
practices of the production company.
TECHNICAL PERSONNEL
 The technical personnel consist of people who are primarily
concerned with operating equipment.
 They are usually part of the crew.
 The technical personnel include camera operators, audio and
lighting people, video recorder (VR) operators, video editors,
C.G. (character generator) operators, and people who set up
communication and signal transmission equipment.
NEWS PRODUCTION PERSONNEL
 Almost all television broadcast stations produce at least one
daily newscast; in fact, the newscasts are often the major
production activity at these stations.
 Because news departments must be able to respond quickly to
a variety of production tasks, such as covering a downtown fire
or a protest at city hall, there is generally little time to prepare
for such events.
 News departments therefore have their own news production
personnel.
 These people are dedicated exclusively to the production of
news, documentaries, and special events and perform highly
specific functions.
NEWS PRODUCTION PERSONNEL CONT.

 As in any other organization, television and corporate video

involve many more people than what you see listed in this
section, such as clerical personnel and the people who
answer phones, schedule events, sell commercial time,
negotiate contracts, build and paint the sets, and clean the
building.
 Because these support personnel operate outside of the
basic production system, their functions aren’t discussed
here.
 WEEK 5
TECHNICAL PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

SUBTOPICS:
• Introduction
• Basic Television System
• Field Production Systems
• Expanded Television System
• Major Equipment
INTRODUCTION
 To make sense of the various pieces of television
equipment and how they interact in a multicamera or
single camera production, you should consider them as
part of a system.
 This way you can relate how they function together, even
though they are presented here individually.
 This section gives an overview of the studio and field
production systems and an introduction to the major
equipment.
BASIC TELEVISION SYSTEM

 A system is a collection of elements that work together to

achieve a specific purpose.
 Each element depends on the proper functioning of the
others, and none of the individual elements can do the job
alone.
 The television system consists of equipment and people who
operate that equipment for the production of specific
programs.
 FIELD PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
 Except for big-remote telecasts that are used for the
transmission of live sports or special events, the field
production systems are much less complex than even a
simple studio show.
 These field productions usually consist of ENG (Electronic
News Gathering) or the more elaborate EFP (Electronic Field
Production).
ENG System Electronic news gathering is usually done with a
camcorder, which houses an entire video system in an
amazingly small box. It contains all the elements needed to
capture and record an event.
FIELD PRODUCTION SYSTEMS CONT.
EFP (Electronic Field Production) System:
 The EFP system normally consists of a single portable EFP
camera and an external recording device or camcorder to
record various segments of an event for post-production
editing.
 In more elaborate productions, several cameras or
camcorders are used simultaneously to capture an event
from various viewpoints.
EXPANDED TELEVISION SYSTEM
 The expanded system includes more equipment in a variety
of configurations. Productions such as news, interviews, game
shows, and soap operas use the multicamera studio system.
 Usually integrated into the expanded system are computer
servers or videotape machines for playback, character or
graphic generators that produce various forms of lettering or
graphic art, and an editing system.
 WEEK 7
MAJOR EQUIPMENT IN TELEVISION PRODUCTION

SUBTOPICS:
• Introduction
• Studio equipment
• Control Equipment
INTRODUCTION
 When learning about television production equipment, always
try to see each piece and its operation within the larger context
of the television system, that is, in relation to all the other
equipment.
 Then tie the equipment to the people who operate it—the
technical personnel. It is, after all, the skilled and prudent use
of the television equipment by the whole production team, and
not simply the smooth interaction of the machines, that gives
the system its value.
 There are many different types of equipment in a television
studio and control room.
STUDIO EQUIPMENT
 A studio usually has TV sets called monitors that allow crew
members and talent to see what is being recorded.
 There is also a studio address loudspeaker system that personnel
in the control room can use to talk to everyone in the studio, both
talent and crew.
 This, of course, cannot be used during production because the
microphones would pick up the sound as part of the program
audio.
 That is why there is also an intercom system that allows various
crew members to communicate with one another over headsets
while a program is being recorded or aired.
 Many studios also have an IFB (interruptible feedback) system that
enables control room personnel to talk to the talent, who wear
small earpieces.
CONTROL EQUIPMENT
 The Control Room, which is the operation center for the
director and other crew members, is usually located near the
studio.
 Often a window between the studio and control room allows
those working in the control room to see what is happening in
the studio.
 This window consists of two panes of glass, each of which is at
a slightly sloped angle so that sounds do not reflect directly off
the glass and create echo.
 The window should be well sealed so sounds from the control
room do not leak into the studio.
CONTROL EQUIPMENT CONT.

 The control room contains a great deal of EQUIPMENT. These

equipment include the following:
 Basically, the images from the cameras go to a Switcher that is used
to select the pictures that can be sent to the recording equipment.
 The sound picked up by the microphones goes to an Audio console,
where the volume can be adjusted and sounds can be mixed
together.
 A graphics generator is used to prepare titles and other material
that needs letters, numbers, and figures.
 The graphics, too, go through the switcher (or are sometimes
incorporated in the switcher) and can be combined with images
from the cameras.
CONTROL EQUIPMENT CONT.
 Other inputs that might go to the switcher and audio board
include a satellite feed and previously produced material that is
fed into a show from a computer-based server or Videotape
Recorder (VTR).
 The dimmer board that controls the studio lights may be in the
control room or in the studio.
 The same is true for the controls for the prompter, the device
that displays the script in front of the camera lens so that talent
can read from it.
 There may also be Camera Control Units (CCUs) that adjust
settings on the studio cameras, such as the amount of light
coming into the lens.
 WEEK 8
TELEVISION PRODUCTION PATH
SUBTOPICS:
• Introduction
• Transducing
• Channeling
• Selecting/altering
• Monitoring
• Recording/ playback
INTRODUCTION

 One way to look at production is to consider a model that

consists of five basic control functions related to audio and
video—transducing, channeling, selecting/altering,
monitoring, and recording/ playback.
 This isn’t the only model of production, but it serves as an
appropriate over-view of the video process.
TRANSDUCING
 Transducing involves converting what we hear or
see into electrical energy, or vice versa.
 For example, a microphone transduces spoken sound into
electrical waveforms that can travel through wires and be
recorded.
 A diaphragm within the microphone vibrates in response to
sound waves and creates a current within electronic elements
of the mic.
 It vibrates differently depending on whether the sounds are
loud or soft, high-pitched or low-pitched.
CHANNELING
 Channeling refers to moving video and sound from one
device to another. In television studios this is typically
accomplished over wires called cables.
 Equipment outlets in the studio allow the cables for the
cameras and mics to run through the walls to the control room
rather than being strewn all over the studio floor.
 The most common way for the electrical signal to leave or
enter a piece of equipment is through a connector.
 For example, one end of a camera cable will plug into a
connector on the camera and the other end will plug into a
connector on the wall.
SELECTING AND ALTERING
 Signals that are transduced by microphones and cam-
eras are usually channeled to an audio console or a switcher,
where they can be selected.
 The switcher has buttons, each of which represents one of the
video signals—camera 1, camera 2, server 2, graphics
generator, satellite feed, and so forth.
 The person operating the switcher pushes the button of the
signal that should go into the video recorder (or on air in the
case of a live program).
MONITORING

 Monitoring allows you to hear and see the material you are
working with at various stages along the way.
 In addition to a monitor for each signal, there is usually a
preview monitor, which is used to set up effects before they go
out on the air, and a program monitor to show what is
currently being sent out from the switcher.
 RECORDING AND PLAYING BACK
 Recording equipment retains sound and picture in
a permanent electronic form for later playback. A wide variety
of equipment accomplishes this goal.
 For many years the only recording material available was tape.
However, although tape is still used, other forms of recording
media, such as hard drives, optical discs, and solid state media
are now far more common.
 Some equipment (e.g., CD players) do not record but only plays
back. Some equipment records both audio and video (e.g., DVD
or Blu-ray players), and some only records audio (e.g., digital
audio recorders).
 WEEK 9
LIGHTING
SUBTOPICS
• Introduction
• Base lighting
• Model lighting
o Key light
o Fill light and
o Back light
• Effects lighting
INTRODUCTION
 Like the human eye, the camera cannot see well without a
certain amount of light.
 Because it is actually not objects we see but the light that is
reflected off the objects, manipulating the light falling on
objects influences the way we perceive them on-screen.
 The purposeful control of light and shadows is called lighting.
 There are basically three types of lighting; Base lighting, Model
lighting and Effects lighting.
BASE LIGHTING
 This is general studio lighting with the use of fill light.
 The lighting is soft not harsh. It is not directed to any particular
place and, therefore, does not create much shadow. However,
the illumination is enough for a television camera to transmit
acceptable pictures.
 The Image Orthicon (black-and-white) camera, the Plumbicon
(colour) camera and the Videocon (portable) camera require
different intensities of base light.
MODEL LIGHTING
 This lighting is usually directed towards a specific
scene or performers. It combines three basic lights,
namely: key light, fill light and back light.
 The key light is directional, very strong and illuminates
the subject, but one disadvantage is that it creates
shadows.
 The fill light reduces the harshness of the shadows.
 The back light on the other hand outlines the subject
and separates him or her from the background.
EFFECTS LIGHTING
 The amount of the light can be varied, depending on the
production requirement.
 The key to back light may also be varied with the back
light having higher intensity than the key light.
 Also, the colour of the hair and dress of the artist should
be considered in determining the intensity of the back
light.
 For instance, an artist with dark hair in a dark dress will
require a higher intensity of the back light than an artist
in a light dress with light or grey hair.
EFFECTS LIGHTING CONT.
 The effect of lighting changes with the lights, direction
relative to a camera viewpoint, and with the position of the
subject.
 Lighting treatment should be designed to allow for camera
and sound boom maneuvers and avoid camera shadows.
Clearly, successful lighting can only come from imaginative,
anticipatory and systematic planning.
 WEEK 10
TYPES OF TELEVISION PRODUCTION

SUBTOPICS:
• Introduction
• Studio production
• Field production
• Remote Production
INTRODUCTION
 One convenient way to understand production is to divide it
in terms of production techniques and disciplines. Thus, you
should consider studio, field, and remote production.
 This powerful medium requires a team of aesthetically
sensitive and technically skilled individuals to communicate
ideas and emotions to a particular audience. Television brings
together a great art to produce the programmes.
STUDIO PRODUCTION
 This is the type of production that takes place within the
confines of a designed room, studio.
 The studio is a controlled environment specially designed for
television production.
 This type of production differs from other type of production
because field and remote production must take into account the
technical problems created by the “real world,” such as rain,
traffic noise, and unwanted shadows.
FIELD PRODUCTION

 This is the type of production that takes place outside the

studio, field.
 Field production usually involves shooting and recording with
a single camcorder.
 The image that comes through the lens goes directly to the
recorder, bypassing the switcher stage.
 Sound is recorded with a microphone, but it, too, usually goes
directly to the recorder. Later, the desired images and sounds
are edited together in the proper order.
FIELD PRODUCTION CONT.

 Because the “real world” is both the studio and the control
room, there may be no need for a set, and the natural lighting
from the sun or the lights in the room may suffice.
 This is usually the case for news and documentaries where you
want to show the actual situation.
 But for other programs, especially dramas and comedies, you
may find that natural lighting and sets are inadequate and that
you need to spend a good deal of time obtaining acceptable
picture and sound.
REMOTE PRODUCTION
 Remote production, is a combination of studio and field
production, although it resembles studio production in that the
outputs of the cameras are fed into a switcher and then either
go out live or are recorded.
 However, remotes, such as the coverage of a football game, can
be more complicated than studio productions and require a
larger crew.
 WEEK 11
CAMERA MOVEMENTS AND OPERATIONS

SUBTOPICS:
• Introduction
• Pan
• Tilt
• Pedestal
• Trucking
• Dolly
• Arc
• Follow
INTRODUCTION

Every operator should

become familiar with
the common camera
movements. Expression
right, left, up and down
do not describe full
range of option of
camera movement.
CAMERA MOVEMENTS AND OPERATIONS

 Pan is a horizontal camera movement in which the camera

moves left and right about a central axis.
 Tilt is a vertical camera movement in which the camera points
up or down from a stationary location. If operator mounts a
camera on his shoulder and nods it up and down, he is tilting the
camera.
 Zoom is technically not a camera move as it does not require the
camera itself to move at all. Zooming means altering the focal
length of the lens to give the illusion of moving closer to or
further away from the action.
 Pedestal means moving the camera vertically up and down with
respect to the subject.
CAMERA MOVEMENTS AND OPERATIONS CONT.

 Trucking is basically the same as track or dolly. Although it

generally refers to side-to-side camera movement with respect
to the action.

 Dolly is a cart which travels along tracks. The camera is

mounted on the dolly and records the shot as it moves. Dolly
shots have a number of applications and can provide very
dramatic footage.
CAMERA MOVEMENTS AND OPERATIONS CONT.

 Arc means movement of the camera in a slightly curved dolly

or truck way with a mobile camera mount. The arc shot is a
camera movement around the subject.

 Follow shot is when operator holds the camera and follows

the action whilst walking. Hard to keep steady, but very
effective when done well.
 WEEK 12
EDITING FOR ELECTRONIC MEDIA
SUBTOPICS:
• Introduction
• The Editing Process
o Recording or shooting phase
o Preview Phase
o Decision - Making Phase
o Final or Operational Stage
• Guidelines for smooth editing
• Linear & Non-Linear Editing
INTRODUCTION
 The need for editing was realized in the early days of the
filmmaking. In the beginning filmmaking involved only shooting.
 The early films were shot, processed and then projected at
theatres.
 Real editing began later when shots and scenes were shot
separately, were processed, and then cut and glued together in
a particular sequence.
 Editing technology has evolved immensely since those early
days.
THE EDITING PROCESS
The editing process takes place in several steps or phases
both for radio and television programmes. These are:
 Recording or shooting phase,
 Preview (Listening and Viewing) Phase,
 Decision - Making Phase, and
 Final or Operational Stage (Post Production Editing)
GUIDELINES FOR SMOOTH EDITING
 Preview your prerecorded audio or video materials carefully
and as many times as possible.
 Make a proper log sheet and note down all important and
precise details about the various shots, their duration, type,
quality, etc.
 Spend some time to think about recorded materials and get
familiar with the central theme, the objectives, possible
styles and approaches, possible music, pace, the overall
structure or organization, the beginning and end, etc.
GUIDELINES FOR SMOOTH EDITING CONT.

 Take decisions about what is important and relevant for your

programme and what is not.
 Discard all such footage that does not contribute to the theme
of your programme.
 Decide about the precise order and continuity of audio bytes,
video shots, of sound and music, use of transitions, etc.
 You are now ready to edit actually. Estimate how much time
you need for editing.
LINEAR & NON-LINEAR EDITING
 Linear video editing is the process of selecting, arranging
and modifying the images and sound recorded on
videotape. Until the advent of computer-based non-linear
editing in the early 1990s "linear video editing" was simply
called “video editing.”
 Non-linear editing for film and television postproduction is
a modern editing method that involves being able to access
any frame in a video clip with the same ease as any other.