MEK10503

MEK 10503
Power System Protection
1
Introduction
Why do we need protection?

To limit the consequences of a fault (damage
asset).
Reduce the risks to acceptance levels while
maintaining the disruption to operation of the
power system. (to ensure maximum continuity of
electrical supply with minimum damage to life,
equipment, and property)
Safety of human personnel
MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

2
Introduction
The consequences of un-cleared faults

Abnormally large currents are caused to flow in parts
of the system with the associated overheating of
components.
System voltages will be off their normal acceptable
levels, resulting in possible equipment damage (under
voltages/ over voltages condition).
Parts of the system will be caused to operate as
unbalanced three-phase systems, which will mean
improper operation of the equipment. (i.e. lose
synchronism)

3
Introduction
Protection design approach

Quickly isolate the affected portion of the system and
to maintain normal service for the system for the rest
of the system. This isolation also minimizes damage
to the affected portion of the system.
Minimize the magnitude of the available short-circuit
current and, in this manner, minimize potential
damage to the system, its components, and the
utilization equipment it supplies
Provide alternate circuits, automatic transfers,
automatic reclosing/automatic transfer devices, where
applicable, in order to minimize the duration or the
extent of supply and utilization equipment outages.
4
Introduction
Types of Abnormalities
Short circuits
- causes of SC including failure of insulation due to
* excessive moisture,
* mechanical damage to electrical distribution
equipment,
* failure of utilization equipment as a result of
overloading or other abuse.
SC may occur between
- two phase conductors
- between all phases of a polyphase system, or
- between one or more phases and ground.
5
Introduction
The requirements (desirable attributes) for

protective power systems design criteria are:
Dependability
Reliability
Selectivity
Speed
Economy
Simplicity

6
Introduction
Dependability
A relay is said to be dependable if it trips only when it
is expected to trip.
Dependability is the degree of certainty that the relay
will operate correctly. (Operated dependably when
fault conditions occur, even after remaining idle for
months or years).
Dependability can be improved by increasing the
sensitivity of the relaying scheme.
Sensitivity
Sensitivity is the ability of the relay to pick up even on
the smallest possible faults.

7
Introduction
Reliability
It is the ability to ’not to fail’ in its function.
It can be achieved by redundancy.
Redundancy in protection depends on the criticality of
the apparatus.
Reliability can be improved by providing backup
protection.

8
Introduction
Selectivity
It is the ability to correctly locate and classify the fault.
A relay should be able to discriminate whether the
fault is in its jurisdiction or not.
This jurisdiction of a relay is called zone of protection.
Protection zones are classified into primary and
backup zones.
Distance or Over-current Protection Scheme

9
Introduction
Selectivity is usually provided by

Time discrimination. Over-current and distance use
this principle.
Applying differential protection principle. In the case of
differential protection, the CT location provides crisp
demarcation of zone of protection.
Differential Protection Scheme

10
Introduction
Speed
A fault should be cleared as quickly as possible in
order to :
 Maximize safety
 Minimize equipment damage
 Minimize system instability
The relay should quickly arrive at a decision and
circuit breakers should be fast enough.

11
Introduction
Speed vs. Accuracy

The consequences of quick tripping decisions are:
 Nuisance tripping or tripping when there is no fault.
 Tripping for faults outside the relay jurisdiction.
 High-speed system tend to be less accurate because of
lesser amount of information.
Figure 1.3 Conceptual illustration of Speed vs. Accuracy Conflict

12
Components of Protective Schemes
1 2
CB Fault CB
T R12 T R21
R R
Circuit Breaker (CB) – to open the line

Transducers (T) – to provide low-level current and
voltage samples to the relay (Instrument transformers)
Relay (R) – to process the current and voltage signals to
produce binary logic signal – ‘trip’ or ‘block’
13
Circuit Breaker
What is a circuit breaker ?

A circuit breaker is basically a switch to interrupt
the flow of current.
It is a device , when received fault signal from
relays, will open the faulted section circuit.
It has to handle large voltages and currents.
The inductive nature of power system results in
arcing between the terminals of a CB.

14
Circuit Breaker
High voltage circuit breakers, 11 kV and above,

take 5 basic forms: oil immersed, air blast, small
oil volume, sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), and
vacuum.
The common symbols:

15
Relays
What is Relay?
A relay is a logical element which process the
inputs (mostly voltages and currents) from the
system and issues a trip decision if a fault within
its jurisdiction is detected.
Inputs to a relay are:
Current from a current transformer.
Voltage from a voltage transformer.
Evolution of Relay technologies:
Early 1900s – electromechanical relays
Late 1950s – solid-state relays
1980s – microprocessor relays
16
Relays
Electromechanical Relays
First generation of relays.
Uses the principle of electromechanical energy
conversion.
Immune to electromagnetic interference and
rugged.

17
Relays
The benefits of microprocessor relay:

Lower costs than electromechanical relays
Fault-location capability with local and remote
reporting
Space saving
Event-recording capability
Reliable, with self-checking capability
Flexible applications, both in programming and
protection capability.
Short delivery time
Simple (in terms of panel layout, wiring, and setting
process)
Reduced engineering and drafting requirements
18
Overcurrent Relays
Very high current is usually caused by fault.

Common protection devices for overcurrent
phenomenon in power system:
Thermo-magnetic switches
Moulded-case circuit breakers (MCCBs) Low voltage
applications
Fuses only!
Overcurrent relays
Types of overcurrent relays:
Definite-current relays
Definite-time relays
Inverse-time relays

19
Overcurrent Relays
Definite-current relay operates when the current

reaches a predetermined value.

20
Overcurrent Relays
Setting for definite-current relay:

Low current at the substation furthest away from
the source and progressively increased moving
towards the source.
5 4 3 2 1
source
Is
Is5
Is4
Is3
Is2
5 4 3 2 1 Distance
21
Overcurrent Relays
Definite-time relay operates according to the

pre-set operating time. It is connected with a
timer. The protection is more selective.
t1

22
Overcurrent Relays
Setting for definite-time relay:

The breaker nearest to the fault is tripped in the
shortest time.
5 4 3 2 1
source
1.5 1.0 0.5 0.25

Time 1.5 sec
1.0 sec
0.5 sec
0.25 sec
5 4 3 2 1

23
Overcurrent Relays
Inverse-time relay operates in a time that is

inversely proportional to the fault current. The
larger the measured fault current in relation to
the operating value, the faster the relay trips.

24
Instrument Transformers
I
Primary conductor
I’
+ Current transformer (CT)

+
V V’
-
-
Voltage transformer (VT)
2 basic types of instrument transformers:

Voltage transformers (VTs) or Potential transformer
(PT)
Current transformers (CTs)
25

26
Voltage or Potential Transformers (VT or PT) – To

provide a voltage which is much lower than the system
voltage. The secondary voltage should be as near as
possible proportional to the primary voltage. The nominal
secondary voltage being 120 VLL or 69 VLN. Provide
voltage for standardize levels of relay operation level.
Current Transformers (CT) – To obtain currents which
are proportional to the system (primary) currents, and
which can be used in control circuits. The protection
current transformers must remain accurate up to at least
20 times normal full load. Provide current for standardize
levels of relay operation level.

27
VTs are generally modelled as an ideal

transformer:
1
V ' V
n
Standard secondary voltage rating = 120 V LN.

Standard VT ratios:
Voltage Ratios
1:1 2:1 2.5:1 4:1 5:1 20:1 40:1
60:1 100:1 200:1 300:1 400:1 600:1 800:1
1000:1 2000:1 3000:1 4500:1

28
The normal current rating of CT secondary is

standardized at 5 A in the US, and 1 A in Europe.
I (I’+Ie) I’
Z’
+
E’ Xe Ie ZB
-
1:n
CT equivalent circuit
Current Ratios
50:5 100:5 150:5 200:5 250:5 300:5 400:5
450:5 500:5 600:5 800:5 900:5 1000:5 1200:5
1500:5 1600:5 2000:5 2400:5 2500:5 3000:5 3200:5
4000:5 5000:5 6000:5
29
Introduction
Types of protection
Apparatus protection
Transmission line protection
Transformer protection
Generator protection
Motor protection
Busbar protection
System protection
Out-of-step protection
Under-frequency relays
Islanding systems
Rate of change of frequency relays
30
Apparatus Protection
Principle of Over-current Protection

When the current in a system exceeds a
predetermined value, it indicates the presence of a
fault.
Relaying decision is based solely on the magnitude of
current.
Used in radial distribution systems.
Over-current relaying and fuse protection uses this
principle. 1 2 3
B1 B2 B3
F2 F1
275 kV/33 kV
L1 L2 L3

31
Radial System Protection
Consider fault at F1. Circuit breaker B3 will open

first and B2 and B1 remain closed as longer time
delay is selected for B2 and B1. Under this
condition, only load L3 is interrupted. Only if B3
fails to open will B2 open.
Consider fault at F2. B2 will open to cause L2
and L3 interrupted. B1 is selected with longer
time delay as a backup to B2.
B2 provides primary protection for fault at F2 as
well as backup for fault at F1. B1 provides
primary protection for fault between B1 and B2
as well as backup for further downstream faults.
32
Example:
Consider the radial system shown in figure below.
Calculate the fault currents for faults FA, FB, FC, FD,
and FE. Propose relay settings on the basis of current
grading, assuming a 50% relay error margin.
4 3 2 1
13.8 kV
FE FD FC FB FA
X5 = 0.5  X43 = 0.25  X32 = 0.05  XT = 2.1 

33
Solution:
The system voltage is 13.8 kV, hence the phase fault
current is
13.8kV
I f (1 ) 
Xf 3
where Xf is the reactance from the source to the fault
points.
For fault FA,

X fA  0.5  0.25  0.05  2.1  2.9 .
13.8kV
 I fA   2747.39 A.
2.9 3
34
For fault FB,

X fB  0.5  0.25  0.05  0.8 .
13.8kV
 I fB   9959.29 A.
0.8 3
For fault FC,
X fC  0.5  0.25  0.75 .
13.8kV
 I fC   10623.25 A.
0.75 3
Since FD is very close to FC, then
IfD = IfC = 10623.25 A.

35
For fault FE,

X fE  0.5 .
13.8kV
 I fE   15934.87 A.
0. 5 3
The relay at 1 should respond to faults FB and FC and
should be set at 150% of fault current at FA. Thus,
IS1 = 1.5 IfA = 4121.09 A.
The relay at 2 should respond to faults FE and FD and

should be set at
IS2 = 1.5IfC = 15934.88 A.
36
Directional Over-current Protection

Uses both magnitude of current and phase angle
information for decision making.
Used in radial distribution systems with source at both
ends.
A Radial System with Source at Both Ends

37
Directional Relays
Designed to operate for fault currents in only

one direction.
C CT
B CT
CT I
A
F2 F1
1 2
D OC
VT
Not
Trip Trip!
Phase A
Phase B
breaker
Phase C trip coil

38
Distance Protection
The basic principle is that the apparent impedance
seen by the relay reduces drastically in case of line
fault.
If the ratio of apparent impedance to the positive
sequence impedance is less than unity, it indicates a
fault.
This protection scheme is inherently directional.
Impedance relay and Mho relay use this principle.
Fault on Transmission Line

39
Distance Protection
Impedance Relay Characteristics A Mho Relay

in R-X plane

40
Line Protection with Distance Relays
Distance relay also called as impedance relay. It’s

function is depends on the impedance measured.
A B
F1 F2
Relay at A uses the line current and the line

voltage to evaluate Z = V/I. The value of the
impedance Z for a fault at F1 would be ZAF1, and
(ZAB + ZBF2) for a fault at F2.
41
Line Protection with Distance Relays
Impedance relay block and trip regions are given

in a R-X plane:
X=Im(Z)
ZR
BLOCK
normal
TRIP operation
R=Re(Z)

42
Principle of Differential Protection

It is based on the fact that any fault within an
electrical equipment would cause the current entering
it to be different from the current leaving it.
By comparing the two currents either in magnitude or
in phase or in both, fault can be determined.
It is an attractive option if both the ends of the
apparatus are located near each other.
Fault on Transmission Line

43
Differential Relays
Differential protection system is use to prevent

short circuit between different phases in a system.
Differential relays are commonly used to protect
generators, buses, and transformers.
I Protected I
Apparatus
Relay
i1 i1-i2 i2

44
Zones of Protection
In general power system configurations, a

fundamental protection concept is the division of
a system into protective zones. Zones are
defined for:
Generators
Transformers
Buses
Transmission lines
Motors

45
Zones of Protection
Protective zone concept:
Zone 4 Zone 7
Zone 2 Zone 9
Zone 1 Zone 5 Zone 8
Zone 3 Zone 6 Zone 10

46
Zones of Protection
Protective zones have the following

characteristics:
Zone are overlapped
Circuit breaker are located in the overlap regions
For a fault anywhere in a zone, all circuit breakers in
that zone open to isolate the fault

47
Generator Protection
Generator Main circuit

stator windings breaker contacts
C
Generator
neutral breaker
B
I1 CT CT I2
A
I’1 - I’2 Relay

I’1 operating I’2
coil
R R
Relay
restraining
coils

48
Generator Protection
Differential protection system is use to prevent

short circuit between different phases of the
generator winding.
In the case of no internal fault within the
generator windings, I1 = I2, and thus I’1 - I’2 = 0.
The relay will operate whenever there is an
internal fault occurred, I1 ≠ I2 and I’1 ≠ I’2. Since
this relay operation depends on a difference
current, it is called a differential relay.

49
Bus Protection
Buses are usually protected against fault

conditions using the differential relay. The
differential bus protection is illustrated as follows:
I1 bus
CT1
CT3 I3
CT2 I2 F
I’1 + I’2 - I’3

Relay
operating
I’2 coil
R
I’1 I’3
R R
Relay
restraining
coils
50
Bus Protection
For the case of no bus fault, I1 + I2 = I3 and the

differential relay current I’1 + I’2 – I’3 = 0, the relay
does not operate.
If there is a bus fault, the differential current
becomes non-zero and the relay operate.

51
Transformer Protection
A number of fault conditions can arise within a

power transformer, including:
Earth faults
Core faults due to insulation breakdown
Interturn faults due to winding flashover
Phase-to-phase faults (rear)
Tank faults resulting in loss of oil reduce winding
insulation
Overheating protection is provided for
transformers by placing a thermal-sensing
element in the transformer tank.
52
Overcurrent relays are used as a backup

protection.
Differential protection is the main scheme used
for transformer.

53
Example:
Consider a /Y-connected, 15 MVA, 33/11-kV transformer with
differential protection applied, for the current transformer ratios shown
in figure. Calculate the relay current on full load. Find the minimum
relay current setting to allow 125% overload.
33/11 kV
300/5 A 2000/5 A
ip is
ir Relay

54
Solution:
The primary line current is

15 x106
IP  3
 262.43 A
3 (33 x10 )
The secondary line current is

15 x106
IS  3
 787.30 A
3 (11x10 )
The C.T. current on the input side is
 5 
iin _ s (CT )  262.43   4.37 A.
 300 
55
The C.T. current on the output side is

 5 
iout _ s (CT )  787.30  3  3.41A.
 2000 
The relay current on full load is
ir  iin _ s (CT )  iout _ s (CT )  4.37  3.41  0.9648 A
With 125% overload, the minimum relay current setting should be

ir  (1.25)(0.9648)  1.206 A.

56

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MEK 10503

Power System Protection

Why do we need protection?

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

The consequences of un-cleared faults

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

Protection design approach

The requirements (desirable attributes) for

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

Distance or Over-current Protection Scheme

Selectivity is usually provided by

Differential Protection Scheme

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

Speed vs. Accuracy

Figure 1.3 Conceptual illustration of Speed vs. Accuracy Conflict

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

Circuit Breaker (CB) – to open the line

What is a circuit breaker ?

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

High voltage circuit breakers, 11 kV and above,

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

The benefits of microprocessor relay:

Very high current is usually caused by fault.

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

Definite-current relay operates when the current

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

Setting for definite-current relay:

Definite-time relay operates according to the

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

Setting for definite-time relay:

1.5 1.0 0.5 0.25

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

Inverse-time relay operates in a time that is

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

+ Current transformer (CT)

2 basic types of instrument transformers:

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

Voltage or Potential Transformers (VT or PT) – To

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

VTs are generally modelled as an ideal

Standard secondary voltage rating = 120 V LN.

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

The normal current rating of CT secondary is

Principle of Over-current Protection

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

Consider fault at F1. Circuit breaker B3 will open

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

For fault FA,

For fault FB,

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

For fault FE,

The relay at 2 should respond to faults FE and FD and

Directional Over-current Protection

A Radial System with Source at Both Ends

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

Designed to operate for fault currents in only

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection

Fault on Transmission Line

Impedance Relay Characteristics A Mho Relay

MKE 1193 – Electric Power Systems Protection