BRIDGE

FOUNDATION
 SCOURING AROUND BRIDGE PIERS
The consequences of bridge construction across a waterway
involve three predictable effects

01
Piers and abutments will generally decrease the effective cross-sectional area
of the stream and thus inevitably increase the velocity and raise the water
level (usually very slightly) upstream from the bridge

02
Piers are obstructions to streamflow and will set up eddies around the piers and may
possibly institute crosscurrents in the stream, tending to change it from it normal
course below the bridge site

the combined effect of increased average velocity and eddies may disturb the

03
equilibrium of the bed material between piers and so lead to scouring. All these
results represent interference with natural conditions and therefore call for the
application of geological information in the engineering solution of the many
problems they bring up.
EFFECT OF A CHANGE IN PERMANENT
WATER LEVEL

• A classic example of the serious effect of a

change in permanent water level is the pier-
foundation scouring of the old Westminster and
Vauxhall bridges over the Thames, in London.
This early nineteenth-century scour followed the
removal of old London Bridge and the
consequent lowering of the water level in the
stretch of the river immediately upstream.
• Normal flow conditions were restored at the site
of the remaining bridges since their foundations
had not been designed for these conditions;
both structures in the course of time had to be
completely rebuilt.
NERBUDDA RIVER

Geological factors significantly influence runoff calculations

for bridge hydraulic conditions, especially in tropical river
valleys. Bridges must ensure the stability of pier, abutment,
and approach foundations, as seen in the Nerbudda River
bridge near Jubbulpore, India.

Bridges over rivers with potentially unstable substrates often include river-training operations. In the
absence of this "training," the water volumes moving between the various piers might not be the same or
might even be the opposite between pairs of piers. If bridge piers are positioned in a way that disrupts the
regular flow pattern in the middle of a stream, riverbed scouring may occur even on tiny streams. More
bridge collapses in the past have been attributed to the scouring of bed materials from surrounding
foundation structures supporting bridge spans than to any other factor.
 REQUIREMENTS
SOME CONSTRUCTION
Bridge-foundation design considers pier construction's specific problems, influenced by geologic
factors, watercourse navigation requirements, water depths, tidal range, and foundation-bed
level, typically using one or three methods.

• use of open cofferdams (working • use of open • use of

either in the dry or in water) dredging compressed-air
caissons, caissons.

Bedrock foundation conditions significantly influence construction methods, such as cofferdam

work, requiring specific pile lengths and resistance to penetration in driving.
 Three Methods
use of open cofferdams
(working either in the dry
or in water)

use of open dredging

caissons
75
use of compressed-air
caissons.
 CANADIAN
NATIONAL
RAILWAYS

• Recent developments in construction techniques have

opened up new possibilities for economical bridge-pier
design in cases of poor foundation conditions. Bridge
piers can readily be constructed using long steel H piles
driven to rock, with the piles possibly encased between
bed and water level with sheet-pile cofferdams in which
aggregate can easily be placed and converted into solid
concrete by specialized grouting techniques. Such piers
give all necessary support above water level, provide
requisite protection down to riverbed level, and derive
their bearing capacity from the column action of deeply
buried steel piles transferring loads to bedrock. A
growing number of Canadian bridges successfully utilize
long steel piles; one of the most notable is the Canadian
National Railways bridge over the Kinojevis River in
north- western Quebec. Steel piles up to 52.5 m (175 ft)
long were used to form bridge piers in material that
could best be described as "soup."
Isambard Kingdom Brunel faced a dilemma when designing the Royal Albert Bridge at
Saltash over the river Tamar. Poor foundation conditions led to the fabrication of a
wrought-iron cylinder, repositioned for 175 borings, and a column of masonry. Brunel's
caisson, 11.1 m in diameter, 27.0 m in height, and weighing 300 tons, was one of the
pioneer structures of construction practice.
Caissons face skin friction
due to sinking through
foundation strata, which
can be overcome by pipe
jetting around the cutting
edge. Caisson trouble is
often caused by uneven
settlement, varying strata,
and ground conditions,
with uneven settlement
due to varying strata or
soil not yielding as
For example, tilting of the 19,000-tonne, reinforced-
expected. concrete open caisson for the east pier of the Mid-
Hudson Bridge at Poughkeepsie, New York reached 48°. A
stiff stratum of clay and sand was over dredged by more
than 3 m (10 ft) below the cutting edge. Sudden collapse
of the unsupported bed material seems to have caused
the tilting; righting of the caisson constituted an unusual
and ingenious construction operation.
 COFFERDAM
Cofferdams are now such a common feature of bridge
piers and abutments and general foundation work that
they are generally accepted without much thought being
CONSTRUCTION given to their geologic environment. Although frequent
reference is made to their "early" use on the river
Thames for the construction of Waterloo Bridge (from
1809 to 1817), the following extract from Vitruvius,
originating about 20 B.C., is therefore of special interest.

A cofferdam with oaken stakes and ties

should be driven into the water, leveled and
dredged, and filled with concrete from the
mortar trough. A double-sided cofferdam with
charred stakes and swamp rushes clay
should be constructed. Water screws,
wheels, and drums should be set up, and the
space bounded by the enclosure should be
dried before digging out the bottom.
COFFERDAM
CONSTRUCTION
Cofferdams are designed to provide an
exposed dry area for construction, with earth
material retention and water pressure sealing
being simple tasks. However, preventing water
inflow around the lower edge of the piling
remains a major problem.
Cofferdam structures consist of a single wall of
interlocking sheet piling driven into foundation
strata. Distance is determined empirically, with
experience in the site region being crucial.
Cofferdams are designed prior to construction,
and materials are ordered. Estimates of piling
penetration are essential, and accurate
information on the encountered strata is valuable.
Permeability is crucial in soil design, but it cannot be solely
influenced by soil properties. Sands and gravels require deep
penetration, requiring a clay blanket to seal water paths. Clay
strata provide an impermeable barrier to seepage, provided
the piling is driven below surface disturbance. In tidal water
or fluctuating water levels, clay soils must be carefully
considered. Clay may deform permanently, creating a gap
between piling and clay, causing water passage issues.
The notes emphasize the importance of subsurface
conditions in construction and the need to
accurately understand soil types. They mention a
case where untrained eyes mistakenly assumed
clay for compacted limestone flour, leading to
serious issues with "blows."
Geological advice is crucial in cofferdam work, as it
accurately predicts the potential for pile-driven
boulders in the ground. However, only a few borings
may detect boulders at bridge pier sites.
Understanding the geologic origin and history of
foundation strata can help predict boulders, and
foundation records from neighboring works are The main cofferdams faced significant challenges due to
valuable in detecting these geological considerations. soil structural disturbance from pile driving and boulder
removal, leading to frequent boils. Pumping methods
struggled to keep up with water flow, requiring extensive
well-point installations. The presence of boulders was
revealed during canal construction 20 years ago.
The construction of three new bridges across
the Cape Cod Canal in Massachusetts in
1934 and 1935 was hampered by boulders.
Wash borings revealed glacial deposits with
granite boulders. The contractor estimated
10% of piling might strike boulders, but up to
40% of one cofferdam was obstructed.
Cavernous limestone was used to construct an
unusual bridge across the Barren River in
Bowling Green, Kentucky. The bridge was built
on a four-span, continuous-plate girder with 33 m
surface and mud pockets. Excavation of up to 3
m of limestone was required, requiring
concurrent pile driving and excavation.

The construction of a 1,424-m bridge over

the Illinois River in Peoria faced a unique
groundwater problem due to the water-
bearing stratum in the wells. The Peoria
Water Works Co., a private utility, was
concerned about potential pollution of its
supply. To control water levels, extensive
studies were conducted and thick concrete
seals were placed.
 SOME UNSUAL
CASES
Bridge piers are unique and hold geological
significance. This article presents unusual but useful
cases of bridge pier construction.

The original Forth Bridge, a railway structure in

Scotland, was opened in 1890 due to geologic
conditions. The north and south piers were built
on basalt and sandstone, respectively, and the till
filled a 180-m-deep preglacial gorge. Inchgarvie
Island, a pinnacle of Fife shire Basalt, provided an
ideal location for the large central foundation,
allowing for extra stability. The basalt used for the
piers was a satisfactory aggregate for concrete.
The 2.4-km-long structure remains an inspiration
for civil engineers and geologists.
 CANADIAN
NATIONAL
RAILWAY

The Canadian National Railway bridge over

the Miramichi River in New Brunswick,
Canada, is still in daily use, with its 1875
superstructure renewed. The bridge is one
of two six-span bridges over the river,
designed with timber caissons, concrete,
and masonry piers. However, the original
borings were inaccurate, leading to sand
and gravel overlying the bridge.
 Sir Sanford
Fleming

Sir Sanford Fleming, a designer, predicted

the safety of the southwest bridge piers
through special penetration tests. He
enlarged caissons and preloaded the piers
with slightly greater loads than the total
loads, accelerating settlement. The bridge's
performance has been satisfactory to this
day, thanks to the geological differences
along the two branches of the Miramichi
River.
 TRANS CANADA
HIGHWAY

The Trans Canada Highway, which

passes through Vancouver, uses a steel
arch with long approach viaducts across
the Fraser River floodplain. The
foundation conditions were revealed
through borings at depths of over 60
meters. The road's foundation consists of
sand and silt, with organic silt overlaid by
clay silts. The main piers for the 360-
meter steel arch were found on this
material, requiring significant design
ingenuity.
 PORT MANN
BRIDGE

A unique solution was adopted for the

Port Mann Bridge, using 80 cm
diameter holes drilled from the surface
to the top of the till. Lower sections of
steel pipe piles were filled with
concrete, serving as a cushion for the
drop hammer to drive the piles,
avoiding disturbance of clay strata and
achieving sound bearing. This design
is a landmark in geotechnical
engineering history.
 INSPECTION AND
MAINTENANCE

Regular inspection of civil engineering

structures, particularly bridge piers, is crucial
due to their underwater nature and
susceptibility to periodic damage. Dry land
piers and abutments require structural integrity,
positional verification, and geotechnical
investigation.
 LETHBRIDGE
VIADUCT

The Lethbridge Viaduct, a steel-trestle

structure of the Canadian Pacific Railway, is
an example of inspection benefit work.
Founded in 1909, the bridge faced
settlement of up to 64mm due to one pier
settlement. To arrest this, caissons were
carried to shale bedrock and a drainage
tunnel was constructed.
 RHAETIAN RAILWAY

Track maintenance at Klosters, Switzerland,

discovered a problem with a 75m reinforced-
concrete bridge carrying the Rhaetian Railway.
The bridge's main arch, which spans 30m, was
rising due to progressive movement towards the
river. Extensive borings detected widespread
movement of the underlying rock talus. A solution
was to brace one abutment against the other
using a reinforced concrete strut. Engineers
checked the adequacy of the design using strain
gauges embedded in the strut.
Pier inspection below normal water levels
should be regular, including periodic
sounding of the riverbed. Bridge engineers
should personally conduct underwater
inspections using diving suits to monitor
bridge structure's impact on riverbed stability.

Two bridge failures in the US in 1933, including

the Anacostia River Bridge, highlighted the
importance of bridge inspection work. The first
collapsed due to a pier failure, causing serious
damage to the structure. The railroad company
had no record of underwater soundings from
1904 to the collapse, and it was their duty to
keep informed about changes affecting the
bridge's safety.
 In 1933, a bridge collapsed on the Southern
Pacific line between Hargis and Tucumcari,
New Mexico, due to unusual floodwaters and
heavy rains. The bridge's position increased
the current's velocity, potentially diverting it
against the railroad-approach embankments.

Studying past mistakes and errors is a valuable way to learn constructive methods. Bridge inspection
records can provide valuable information on unsuspected features. Design engineers should regularly
examine foundation strata to ensure the support of bridge structures.
GROUTING
• Grouting is a crucial civil engineering technique used to improve foundation beds and
overcome geologic defects, relying heavily on the interrelationship between geology and its
successful implementation.
• Grouting is the injection of material into earth to seal open spaces. It's commonly used in

GROUTING
dam foundations for water-tightness and in engineered construction. Chemical grouting is
particularly useful for confined spaces like urban tunnels. Grouting is expensive and heavily
dependent on geology, making it a common subject for civil engineers.
• Grouting, a specialty process in civil engineering, has a well-documented history dating back to
1802 in France for masonry repair. It was first mentioned in United States engineering literature
by William E. Worthen in 1854. British engineer W. R. Kinipple was a pioneer of modern grouting,
and the first cement grouting to strengthen bedrock was used in 1876 by Thomas Hawksley at an
earth dam at Tunstall Reservoir. The first use of grouting into rock in the United States was in
1893 at New Croton Dam for New York City's water supply.
• Civil engineers now consider grouting a standard practice, with cement being the universal material, with
clay and asphalt having limited use
• Cement is the most commonly used grouting material in civil engineering, as it sets up hard and
bonds well with other materials. Initially, grout was poured into open cavities, but pressure injection
was later developed. The origin of cement grouting is uncertain, but it likely originated with
Romans.
GROUTIN
G
 FOUNDATION STRENGTHENING WITH GROUT

Grouting, a technique developed by Albert François, is used for shaft

sinking through water-bearing strata in mining engineering. It can be
accurately planned and controlled with proper geologic knowledge.
Grouting has also been used to control underground coal fires, as
demonstrated in the case of unmined coal in Derbyshire, England.

• The Havana Hilton Hotel's foundation uses Intrusion-Prepakt grout, a

specialty grouting process, to increase bearing capacity. This method
injects a proprietary grout composition into crushed rock aggregate,
creating concrete in situ. This method is particularly useful for difficult
foundation jobs due to its combined effect and experience.
 FOUNDATION STRENGTHENING WITH GROUT
The Geislingen Autobahn bridge in West Germany was designed
using shell-limestone, which was initially deemed weak for carrying
loads. However, a re-evaluation of the bedrock revealed that cement
grouting could strengthen the rock, leading to a more economical
box-girde design. The bridge was supported on eight piers, with the
lowest limestone formation being the strongest. This resulted in a
design saving of over $20 million.

Bridge engineers aim for a sound geologic foundation to avoid grouting for safety and stability.
Grouting improves natural imperfections, but is only useful when accurate geological conditions
indicate it's necessary. Successful grouting requires experienced experts with precise subsurface
conditions and geological investigations.
 CONCLUSION
River scour, a natural
phenomenon, poses a
significant challenge for civil
engineers due to its insidious
nature and potential for
undetected erosion.
Riverbed erosion at the 17th July
bridge site in Baghdad caused by
scour within three years of
construction. The bridge, 270m
long, was built on deep piles, but
site borings revealed potential
erodable sand bed.
The new bridge in Bratislava,
Czechoslovakia, with beds
under the main supports
differing due to an ancient
river fault.
Geology significantly
influences bridge design, with
alluvial deposits on right bank
and granitic bedrock on left
bank.
THANK YOU 